Today, we join friends and family in Wales to celebrate St David’s Day.  It is an annual Welsh celebration held on the first day of March. This day honours Saint David, the patron saint of Wales, whose life and legacy are remembered with pride and cultural festivities right across the nation. Across the country, people wear daffodils and leeks. They wave the striking Welsh flag, proudly displaying its iconic red dragon. This heraldic dragon symbol, known in Welsh as Y Ddraig Goch, has deep roots in legend, folklore, and national identity.  However, what is the connection between dragons and the Dinosauria? Quite a lot, in fact!

Dragons and the Dinosauria

To vertebrate palaeontologists, the word dragon often conjures images of legendary beasts. Yet, it also has a clear connection to prehistoric life. Many dinosaur names contain the suffix – saurus, a Greek word meaning “lizard”. In China, new dinosaur species often include “long” in their names — a word that translates to dragon. For example, we recently wrote a blog article highlighting the discovery of a remarkable iguanodontid dinosaur from China named Haolong dongi. The genus name translates as “spiny dragon”.

To read our post: “Spiny Dragon” Reveals Secrets of Dinosaur Skin.

Researchers examining the Haolong dongi fossil material. Picture credit: Thierry Hubin (Institute of Natural Sciences).

Picture credit: Thierry Hubin (Institute of Natural Sciences)

Many dinosaur discoveries spark imaginations just like mythical dragons do. Their enormous sizes, sharp teeth and reptilian skins have fuelled human stories for centuries.  For instance, there are several Chinese dinosaurs represented by CollectA Delxue models. The beautiful CollectA Deluxe Beishanlong model is a favourite.   This theropod’s name translates as “Northern White Mountains Dragon”.

The CollectA 1:40 scale Beishanlong dinosaur model shown in lateral view. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

To view the CollectA range of scale models in stock: CollectA Deluxe Dinosaur Models.

Dragons and Dinosaurs

Both dragons of myth and real prehistoric reptiles remind us how powerful ancient reptiles captured human imagination. They also help us celebrate cultural heritage alongside scientific discovery.

So, on this St David’s Day, let’s give a nod to Wales and its enduring dragon symbol. We acknowledge the cultural significance of this day and that dinosaurs and dragons are entwined.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Happy St David’s Day to all our Welsh readers and dinosaur fans everywhere!”

The Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys.

Tyrannosaurus rex remains one of the most iconic dinosaurs. People imagine this giant predator thundering across Late Cretaceous landscapes chasing prey. But new science suggests it didn’t stomp like a lumbering beast. Instead, it may have moved in a way more akin to extant flightless birds such as an ostrich. Researchers from the College of the Atlantic (Maine), Oklahoma State University, Colorado Northwestern Community College and the late Scott Swann examined how the feet of T. rex interacted with the ground as it walked. This new study into Tyrannosaurus rex foot function provides new information about theropod gait and speed.

They combined measurements of bones, predictive equations and comparisons with living animals like ostriches.  Their study has been published this week in Royal Society Open Science.

Tyrannosaurus rex Foot Function – Walking on Tiptoes

Traditional reconstructions assumed T. rex made contact with the ground using the heel first. This would give a broad, flat footfall and a slow, ponderous stride. But the new analysis turned this idea on its head. The deepest parts of known fossil footprints sit under the toes, not the heel. That suggests the dinosaur struck the ground mainly with the front of its foot, much like birds do today.

This “tiptoe” style of locomotion is very different from how we once thought giant theropods walked. Instead of low, heavy steps, T. rex likely took shorter, quicker strides, with its weight balanced over the toes. That’s remarkably similar to the way fast, bipedal birds like ostriches move.

A new study provides new information about Tyrannosaurus rex locomotion and gait. The researchers postulate that T. rex struck the ground with its toes first.  The Everything Dinosaur Evolution Tyrannosaurus rex display base features three-toed theropod prints that have been modelled based on real tyrannosaur tracks. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Locomotion and Speed

As the researchers postulate that the toes struck the ground first and that the stride was rapid, the authors propose that T. rex may have moved quicker than previously estimated. Their calculations suggest speeds of roughly 5–11 metres per second. That translates to about 11–25 miles per hour (17.7 to 40.2 kph).  Still not quite fast enough to chase down a jeep as depicted in the 1993 film “Jurassic Park” but quicker than previous research has suggested.

So, T. rex could run faster than David Beckham: Locomotion and Velocity Study (Theropod Dinosaurs).

To put this in perspective, ostriches can sprint at over 40 km/h (25 mph). A dinosaur as massive as T. rex using a bird-like gait is a fascinating twist on our view of its locomotion. Of course, how fast any individual dinosaur really ran would depend on age, health and body size. But this paper gives us a new way to think about how it moved.  Indeed, the research team provides estimates of velocity for different T. rex specimens within their dataset.

Estimated speeds of T. rex specimens within the dataset used in the Tyrannosaurus rex foot function study. Different dinosaur models including the Everything Dinosaur Evolution T. rex model are used to illustrate the estimated velocity. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur based on the Boeye et al paper.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur based on the Boeye et al paper

Footprints and the Everything Dinosaur Evolution T. rex Model

Everything Dinosaur’s Evolution T. rex model beautifully captures one aspect of this research. The display base features replicated Tyrannosaurus footprints from the fossil record. These prints are not just decorative. They reflect real ichnological data, and they give us clues about gait and stance.  For example, the two tracks on the display base have been carefully modelled.  They have deeper toes than heels and this reflects the evidence presented in this scientific paper.

The tracks on the Everything Dinosaur Evolution display base are based on actual prints from the fossil record. The deeper toe area indicates that these tracks reflect the latest research. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

To view the Everything Dinosaur Evolution model range: Everything Dinosaur Evolution Models.

The new study’s findings resonate with that real footprint evidence. If T. rex walked with a bird-like foot function, then those tracks on our model base become even more meaningful. They show where the animal shifted weight onto its toes, aligning with the idea of higher stride frequency and elevated speed potential.

The Movement of Extinct Animals

The movement of extinct animals has interested numerous researchers.  Tyrannosaurus rex locomotion has been extensively studied, in part, due to an iconic scene from “Jurassic Park”. The research team used complex statistical analysis to compare fossil specimens with extant animals including ostriches. Additionally, the models are consistent with recent studies suggesting slower to more intermediate top speeds for adult Tyrannosaurus that fall within the range of 5–11 metres per second. This study lays the groundwork for future studies to add comparisons with additional theropods and potentially identify ecological differences between species.

This research doesn’t just revise a number on a speed chart. It touches on how the largest land predator of its time interacted with its environment. A bird-like gait has implications for energy use, hunting strategy, balance and stability. It also reinforces the evolutionary link between theropod dinosaurs and modern birds.

In summary, T. rex may have been both terrifying and surprisingly agile. With Tyrannosaurus rex foot function studies like this, we continue to peel back layers of preconception about how dinosaurs lived and moved. And models like Everything Dinosaur’s Evolution T. rex help us share that story with collectors and enthusiasts around the world.

The scientific paper: “Evidence of bird-like foot function in Tyrannosaurus” by Adrian Tussel Boeye, Kyle Logan Atkins-Weltman, J. Logan King and Scott Swann published in the Royal Society Open Science.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Models.

Palaeontologists have revealed an extraordinary new species of dinosaur. This giant theropod, named Spinosaurus mirabilis, lived around ninety-five million years ago in what is now the central Sahara Desert. It is the first new species in the Spinosaurus genus described in more than a century.

The discovery challenges long-held ideas about how spinosaurids lived and hunted. The name mirabilis means “marvellous” in Latin, reflecting the unique and striking anatomy of this Cretaceous piscivore.

A Spinosaurus mirabilis has caught a coelacanth. Picture credit: D. Navarro.

Picture credit: D. Navarro

A Remarkable Discovery

The story began in 2019 when scientists pulled a massive, oddly shaped bone from Sahara sands. The scimitar-shaped crest of this dinosaur was so large and unexpected that the scientists initially did not recognise it for what it was. Only after a return expedition was despatched (2022) and the discovery of additional fossils did the truth emerge — a new dinosaur species had been found.

The research team, led by the University of Chicago’s Paul Sereno, published the findings in the academic journal “Science”.

Based on the crest’s surface texture and interior vascular canals, the study team concluded that this crest was sheathed in keratin.  It may have been brightly coloured and played a role in species identification and visual display.

Ana Lázaro holding crest of Spinosaurus mirabilis in field. Picture credit: Alvaro Simarro.

Picture credit: Alvaro Simarro

Another striking feature of the skull is its interdigitating upper and lower tooth rows. These make a deadly trap for slippery fish. Interdigitating teeth, where those of the lower jaw protrude outward and between those of the uppers, is a time-honoured adaptation on among piscivores in the fossil record. For example, this type of dentition is found in ichthyosaurs, crocodilians and pterosaurs. Among dinosaurs, it sets Spinosaurus and closest kin apart.

Commenting on the significance of this discovery, lead author Paul Sereno, (PhD, Professor of Organismal Biology and Anatomy at the University of Chicago) stated:

“This find was so sudden and amazing, it was really emotional for our team. I’ll forever cherish the moment in camp when we crowded around a laptop to look at the new species for the first time, after one member of our team generated 3D digital models of the bones we found to assemble the skull — on solar power in the middle of the Sahara. That’s when the significance of the discovery really registered.”

Field team members getting their first look at the tall crested Spinosaurus skull. Picture credit: Jessica Schwartz.

Picture credit: Jessica Schwartz

What Made Spinosaurus mirabilis Special?

Previously, spinosaurid bones and teeth had only been found principally in coastal deposits. This led to some experts postulating that these fish-eating theropods may have been fully aquatic, pursuing prey underwater. However, the new fossil area in Niger documents animals that were living inland, some 500 to 1000 km from the nearest coastline. The proximity of the spinosaurid material to the fossilised remains of sauropods suggest that this was a forested, inland ecosystem crossed by many rivers.

Paul Sereno added:

“I envision this dinosaur as a kind of ‘hell heron’ that had no problem wading on its sturdy legs into two metres of water but probably spent most of its time stalking shallower traps for the many large fish of the day.”

Paul Sereno with a cast of the skull of Spinosaurus mirabilis. Picture credit: K. Ladzinski.

Picture credit: K. Ladzinski

An Amazing Journey

The journey that culminated in this remarkable fossil discovery began with a single sentence in a monograph from the 1950s.  A French geologist mentioned finding a single fossil tooth resembling those of the giant carnivore Carcharodontosaurus found in Egypt’s Western Desert at the turn of the last century.

The field team ended up meeting a local Tuareg man who led them on his motorbike deep into centre of the Sahara, where he had seen huge fossil bones. After nearly a day of travel with no shortage of doubts regarding the success of this venture, the local man led them to the fossil site (Jenguebi).  There, with little time to spare before returning to camp, the team found teeth and jaw bones of what turned out to be a new Spinosaurus species.

The snout end of Spinosaurus mirabilis weathering out of the substrate. Picture credit: Daniel Vidal.

Picture credit: Daniel Vidal

What Does this Mean for the Spinosauridae?

The discovery of Spinosaurus mirabilis expands our view of spinosaurid evolution. It shows that these theropods were not restricted to coastal habitats. Instead, they thrived inland inhabiting river systems.  This new Spinosaurus species suggests that the spinosaurids diversified in ways we are only beginning to understand.

This species helps fill a gap in the fossil record. It hints at a broader evolutionary story across Africa’s Cretaceous landscapes.

The locality, representing the Farak Formation may yield numerous vertebrate remains. The spinosaurid material is approximately ninety-five million old (Cenomanian faunal stage of the Late Cretaceous). At the end of the Cenomanian faunal stage, an abrupt rise in sea levels and climate change probably brought the spinosaurid radiation to an end.

The Phylogeny of Spinosaurus mirabilis

A time-calibrated phylogenetic analysis resolves three Spinosauridae evolutionary phases. Firstly, an initial Jurassic radiation when their distinctive elongate fish-snaring skull evolved and split into two distinctive designs, baryonychine and spinosaurine. Secondly, an Early Cretaceous circum-Tethyan diversification when both reigned as dominant predators. Finally, an early Late Cretaceous phase when spinosaurines attained maximum body size as shallow water ambush specialists limited geographically to northern Africa and South America.

The discovery of the tall-crested Spinosaurus mirabilis in a river system within an inland basin supports a lifestyle interpretation of a wading, shoreline predator with visual display an important aspect of its biology.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Chicago in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Scimitar-crested Spinosaurus species from the Sahara caps stepwise spinosaurid radiation” by Paul C. Sereno, Daniel Vidal, Nathan P. Myhrvold, Evan Johnson-Ransom, María Ciudad Real, Stephanie L. Baumgart, Noelia Sánchez Fontela, Todd L. Green, Evan T. Saitta, Boubé Adamou, Lauren L. Bop, Tyler M. Keillor, Erin C. Fitzgerald, Didier B. Dutheil, Robert A. S. Laroche, Alexandre V. Demers-Potvin, Álvaro Simarro, Francesc Gascó-Lluna, Ana Lázaro, Arturo Gamonal, Charles V. Beightol, Vincent Reneleau, Rachel Vautrin, Filippo Bertozzo, Alejandro Granados, Grace Kinney-Broderick, Jordan C. Mallon, Rafael M. Lindoso and Jahandar Ramezani. Paper published in the journal Science.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Museum Quality Dinosaur Models.

A remarkable Edmontosaurus skull fossil on display at the Montana State University’s Museum of the Rockies sheds new light on how members of the genus Tyrannosaurus tackled their prey. Moreover, this intriguing specimen forms the centrepiece of a new collaborative study involving scientists from Montana State University and the University of Alberta.  The research, published in the academic journal PeerJ, provides potential evidence of tyrannosaur hunting strategy as well as insights into feeding behaviour.

In 2005, a nearly complete Edmontosaurus skull (MOR 1627) was found in the Hell Creek Formation of eastern Montana on lands managed by the Bureau of Land Management. Importantly, the skull preserves a dramatic detail. A broken tyrannosaur tooth remains embedded in the dinosaur’s face. A partial tooth crown is embedded in the nasal bone. Consequently, it attracted the attention of doctoral researcher Taia Wyenberg-Henzler (University of Alberta) and Dr John Scannella, Curator of Palaeontology at the Museum of the Rockies.

The researchers wanted to identify the owner of the tooth.  Is this evidence of Tyrannosaurus rex hunting behaviour?

Rare Evidence of Ancient Behaviour

Although bite marks frequently appear on fossil bones, embedded teeth are extremely uncommon. Therefore, this specimen offers exceptional scientific value.

Co-author of the study, Wyenberg-Henzler explained:

“The great thing about an embedded tooth, particularly in a skull, is it gives you the identity of not only who was bitten but also who did the biting. This allowed us to paint a picture of what happened to this Edmontosaurus, kind of like Cretaceous crime scene investigators.”

Confirming the Culprit

Crocodilians or pterosaurs were quickly ruled out.  They compared the tooth crown with teeth from Hell Creek Formation theropods. The morphology most closely matched teeth from a large-bodied predator. Curvature and ovoid cross-sectional shape of the tooth further suggests that the tooth is a maxillary tooth from a middle or posterior tooth position. The researchers concluded that the embedded crown is most likely an adult Tyrannosaurus maxillary tooth rather than an immature Tyrannosaurus or Nanotyrannus tooth. Denticle shape also suggests that the embedded tooth is a tyrannosaurid tooth.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s recent blog post about evidence for Nanotyrannus being a valid taxon: Nanotyrannus Hyoid Bone Makes Crucial Breakthrough.

Furthermore, CT scans of the skull provided additional detail. These scans were carried out at Advanced Medical Imaging at Bozeman Health Deaconess Hospital. Dr Scannella (Museum of the Rockies) emphasised the importance of the find. The fossil captures a moment of behaviour, specifically a tyrannosaur biting into the face of a duck-billed dinosaur.

An artist’s reconstruction of the tyrannosaur attack on the unfortunate Edmontosaurus. Picture credit: Jenn Hall.

Picture credit: Jenn Hall

Predator or Scavenger?

Interestingly, the skull shows no signs of healing around the embedded tooth. The lack of reactive bone in the region surrounding the tooth suggests the animal died around the time the tooth became embedded in the nasal. Therefore, two possibilities remain. The Edmontosaurus may already have been dead when bitten. Alternatively, the attack itself may have been fatal.

Nevertheless, the position of the tooth offers further clues. The researchers noted that the impact angle suggests a face-to-face encounter. Typically, such injuries occur during active predation rather than casual scavenging. An examination of the hunting strategies of extant mammalian and reptilian carnivores confirmed that bites to the head are often employed to swiftly despatch prey.

The study authors conclude that the embedded tooth is most consistent with a bite inflicted during an attempt to control the struggling Edmontosaurus or deliver a killing blow followed by carcass consumption. In addition, the force required to snap a tyrannosaur tooth inside bone indicates a powerful, potentially lethal bite. Consequently, the evidence paints a vivid picture of the duck-billed dinosaur’s final moments.

Edmontosaurus Skull Provides New Insights into Tyrannosaurus Feeding Behaviour

The feeding ecology of Tyrannosaurus has long generated debate among palaeontologists. Some researchers have argued for active predation, while others have emphasised scavenging. However, this remarkable Hell Creek fossil adds an important data point. It provides rare, direct evidence of tyrannosaur feeding behaviour preserved in the fossil record.

For scientists and dinosaur enthusiasts alike, the specimen offers a compelling glimpse into the harsh realities of Late Cretaceous ecosystems.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum of the Rockies in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Behavioral implications of an embedded tyrannosaurid tooth and associated tooth marks on an articulated skull of Edmontosaurus from the Hell Creek Formation, Montana” by Taia C.A. Wyenberg-Henzler​ and John B. Scannella published in PeerJ.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Tyrannosaurus Models and Dinosaur Figures.

Scientists have identified the oldest reptile skin impressions from a remarkable fossil discovered in Germany. The fossil also preserves possible evidence of a cloaca (vent).  The vent shape and structure are reminiscent of the vents found in extant turtles and living squamates. Dr Lorenzo Marchetti from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin led the research. The study has been published in the academic journal “Current Biology”.

The earliest resting trace of a stem reptile and the fossil specimen preserves the earliest evidence of epidermal scales and a cloaca (vent). These scales are preserved on a newly described resting trace Cabarzichnus pulchrus representing the oldest and most complete body-impression occurrence of a Palaeozoic stem reptile. Picture credit: Lorenzo Marchetti

Picture credit: Lorenzo Marchetti

The Oldest Reptile Skin Impressions Known to Science

The stunning and beautifully  preserved skin impressions were found on a slab with associated footprints of an early reptile (Varanopus microdactylus). The material is from the Goldlauter Formation and dates from the Early Permian. Modern radiometric dating of volcanic ash layers allows the finds to be precisely dated. They are around 299-298 million years old. This makes them the oldest direct evidence of reptile skin found to date.

Skin structures such as scales, feathers or horned beak remnants are documented by a large number of fossils. For example, several examples of dinosaur integument are known. Recently, we wrote a blog post about a remarkable study of the skin of Diplodocus. However, the German skin impressions are around twice as old as the Diplodocus skin impression material.

To read about the study of diplodocid integument: The Amazing Skin of a Young Diplodocus.

A sauropod skin impression (NHMUK R1868) on display as part of the London Natural History Museum Patagotitan exhibition. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Commenting on the significance of the research, Dr Lorenzo Marchetti stated:

“Such soft tissue structures are extremely rare in the fossil record – and the further back we go in geological history, the more extraordinary they become. The traces from the Thuringian Forest open up new perspectives on the early development of reptiles and their skin structures.”

Cabarzichnus pulchrus

The newly described resting traces have been named Cabarzichnus pulchrus.  It is a new genus and species of trace fossil. The associated footprints have proportions similar to those of bolosaurs – an early group of reptiles from the lineage of today’s lizards. The preserved scale shapes range from diamond-shaped to hexagonal to laterally pointed and show remarkable parallels to integuments of living reptiles.

We Have a Cloaca

The skin impression representing the base of the tail preserves possible evidence of a cloaca (vent). Most terrestrial vertebrates have a cloaca – a common opening for the excretion of faeces and urine, which is also the exit point for the reproductive organs. Only live-bearing mammals have separate openings. In the fossil record, the cloaca is almost never preserved and clearly recognisable as part of the soft tissue. However, the skin impression shows traces of a cloaca opening near the base of the tail. The impression of the narrow slit suggests that the cloaca of the Cabarzichnus track maker differs in shape and orientation from that of dinosaurs and crocodiles, resembling instead the cloaca of turtles, lizards and snakes.

Trace fossils which preserve the oldest reptile skin impressions can provide a more complete picture of the evolution of early land vertebrates.

Dr Marchetti added:

“Trace fossils are much more than mere footprints. They preserve details of anatomy that would otherwise be completely lost and contribute significantly to a better understanding of the evolution of early terrestrial vertebrates.”

This record of dermal and epidermal scales provides evidence for the co-existence of epidermal and dermal scales in Carboniferous stem amniotes and for epidermal scale differentiation in Asselian stage (Early Permian) stem reptiles. Therefore, this adaptation precedes the main phases of the global warming and aridification associated with the Early Permian and probably enabled the diversification of stem reptiles.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “The earliest reptile body impressions with scaly skin” by Lorenzo Marchetti, Antoine Logghe, Michael Buchwitz, Mark J. MacDougall, Arnaud Rebillard, Thomas Martens and Jörg Fröbisch published in Current Biology.

For models and figures of Palaeozoic vertebrates: Models of Early Terrestrial Vertebrates.

A remarkable fossil discovery from Thuringia (Germany) has provided direct evidence of the feeding habits of early terrestrial predators.  The fossil comes from the Bromacker locality.  This is a UNESCO Global Geopark and it preserves an ancient ecosystem that existed approximately 290 million years ago.  Bone fragments preserved in a mass have been identified as a bromalite.  It was thought they represented a coprolite (fossilised faeces).  A bromalite is a trace fossil.  It represents material originating from an animal’s digestive system. For example, it could be excreted matter in the form of faeces or urine.  It could also represent regurgitated matter such as pellets regurgitated by a bird of prey or even vomit.  The bromalite has been identified as regurgitated material. The Bromacker bromalite study has been published in the academic journal “Scientific Reports”.

Compacted Bone Fragments

The fossil consists of a tangle of compacted bones.  Indigestible food remains were regurgitated by a predator.  Such finds are extremely rare, especially on land. The Bromacker find is the oldest known evidence of such regurgitation from the Palaeozoic and the first that can be clearly attributed to a terrestrial predator. Modern computerised tomography (CT scans) enabled the research team to reconstruct each bone in three dimensions. The analysis revealed that the predator had eaten at least three different vertebrates of different species and body sizes. These included two smaller, agile land animals and a significantly larger, herbivorous animal.

Only two large predators are known from the Bromacker locality.  Firstly, there is Tambacarnifex which superficially resembled a large monitor lizard. Secondly, there is the sail-backed reptile Dimetrodon. Both are considered to be apex predators.

A Dimetrodon teutonis one of the apex predators of the Bromacker locality regurgitates undigestible remains. In the foreground an Eudibamus cursoris scuttles away from the carnivore. A Thuringothyris mahlendorffae basks on a rock in the background. The image also features the prehistoric plants Arnhardtia scheibei, Calamites gigas, Sphenopteridium germanicum, and Walchia piniformis. Picture credit: Sophie Fernandez.

Picture credit: Sophie Fernandez

The Significance of the Bromacker Bromalite Study

Commenting on the significance of this research, lead author of the study Arnaud Rebillard (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin) stated:

“For the first time, we can directly show which animals an early land predator ate. Such direct evidence of feeding relationships is virtually unknown from this period.”

In total, forty-one bones were identified.  They comprise a maxilla attributed to the captorhinomorph Thuringothyris mahlendorffae, postcranial elements of the bolosaurid Eudibamus cursoris and an unidentified diadectid, along with several unassignable elements.  The Bromacker bromalite study indicates that large, terrestrial predators were opportunists and consumed a wide variety of prey.

The discovery not only provides new insights into the behaviour of individual animals but also offers a rare glimpse into the food webs of early terrestrial ecosystems. It shows how complex and diverse life terrestrial food webs had become by the Early Permian.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Early Permian terrestrial apex predator regurgitalite indicates opportunistic feeding behaviour” by Arnaud Rebillard, Andréas Jannel, Lorenzo Marchetti, Mark J. MacDougall, Christopher Hamann, J.-Sébastien Steyer and Jörg Fröbisch published in Scientific Reports.

For models of Dimetrodon and other prehistoric creatures: Prehistoric Animal Figures.

The Rhynie chert fossils represent one of the most important palaeontological discoveries ever made. This unique Scottish site preserves an Early Devonian ecosystem in astonishing detail. As a result, scientists can learn about an ancient palaeoenvironment.  The biota that existed in a swamp close to hot, mineral-rich springs was like nothing known on Earth today.

Moreover, the Rhynie chert captures life in situ. It preserves hot spring environments, early land plants, arthropods, and microbial communities. Therefore, it provides a rare snapshot of terrestrial ecosystems around 407 million years ago.  As part of a media release concerning a new study into the giant, enigmatic taxon Prototaxites, we received an artist’s impression of the Rhynie chert Devonian landscape.

Artist’s impression of what the environment at Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, where the Prototaxites fossils were discovered, would have looked like 410 million years ago. Picture credit: Matt Humpage.

Picture credit: Matt Humpage

Researching Rhynie Chert Fossils

Recent research has provided additional insight. A recent study suggests that Prototaxites does not belong to fungi or plants. Instead, it may represent an entirely unknown complex life form. This discovery reshapes how we understand early terrestrial life and evolutionary experimentation.

To read our blog post about this research: Beautiful Rhynie Chert Fossils Reveal Their Secrets.

The Rhynie chert fossils continue to challenge long-held assumptions. They demonstrate that Early Devonian ecosystems were already diverse and surprisingly sophisticated. Consequently, this site remains a global reference point for palaeobiology and evolutionary research.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Museum fossil collections are invaluable. Fossils collected decades ago can play a role in new research. Improved analytical techniques allow scientists to re-examine old specimens and uncover fresh insights. We still have so much to learn about our incredible planet and its deep evolutionary history.”

The Rhynie chert fossils continue to transform our understanding of early terrestrial life. They remind us that evolution experimented in unexpected ways during the Devonian.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the National Museums of Scotland in the compilation of this article.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Prehistoric Animals and Plants.

Newly published research suggests that Early Devonian Prototaxites was a “new” form of life.  This giant organism, represented in the fossil record by columnar fossils up to eight metres tall, is distinct from plants and fungi.  Writing in the academic journal “Science Advances”, scientists from the University of Edinburgh and National Museums Scotland postulate that Prototaxites fossils represent a complex lifeform that is neither a fungus or a plant. Furthermore, the researchers postulate that these novel organisms died out around 360 million years ago.

An artist impression of what Prototaxites would have look like in life. It is surrounded by primitive plants in the Rhynie chert landscape. Picture credit Matt Humpage.

Picture credit: Matt Humpage

Studying Prototaxites Fossils

The fossil at the centre of this investigation comes from the famous Rhynie chert. Named after the nearby village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire (Scotland), the rocks preserve a terrestrial ecosystem that existed approximately 407 million years ago.  Hot springs saturated with minerals periodically inundated a nearby marsh ecosystem.  The primitive plants and other organisms were preserved in amazingly detail.  Cell walls and pore spaces were replaced by these minerals.  The fossils from this locality provide a unique insight into early terrestrial plant communities.

The fossil material used in this study will be housed and cared for at the National Museums Collection Centre in the north of Edinburgh.

Lead co-author Dr Sandy Hetherington, Research Associate at National Museums Scotland and Senior Lecturer from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Edinburgh, explained:

“It’s really exciting to make a major step forward in the debate over Prototaxites, which has been going on for around 165 years. They are life, but not as we now know it, displaying anatomical and chemical characteristics distinct from fungal or plant life, and therefore belonging to an entirely extinct evolutionary branch of life. Even from a site as loaded with palaeontological significance as Rhynie, these are remarkable specimens and it’s great to add them to the National Collection in the wake of this exciting research.”

National Museums Scotland Research Associate Sandy Hetherington with a sample of the 410-million-year-old fossil of Prototaxites. Picture credit: Neil Hanna.

Picture credit: Neil Hanna

Prototaxites (P. taiti) Chemically and Structurally Distinct from Fungi

Following an analysis of the Prototaxites fossil material, the research team concluded that this organism was chemically distinct from contemporaneous fungi. In addition, the study demonstrates that it is structurally distinct from all known fungi.

Co-lead and first author Dr Corentin Loron (UK Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Edinburgh) said:

“The Rhynie chert is incredible. It is one of the world’s oldest fossilised terrestrial ecosystems and because of the quality of preservation and the diversity of its organisms, we can pioneer novel approaches such as machine learning on fossil molecular data. There is a lot of other material from the Rhynie chert already in museum collections for comparative studies, which can add important context to scientific results.”

Co-author of the study Corentin Loron from the University of Edinburgh with a slice sample of the Prototaxites fossil. Picture credit: Neil Hanna.

Picture credit: Neil Hanna

A Separate and Entirely Extinct Form of Life

This study casts doubt upon the fungal affinity of Prototaxites, instead suggesting that this enigmatic organism is best assigned to an entirely extinct eukaryotic lineage.

Co-first author Laura Cooper, a PhD student from the Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences at the University of Edinburgh, added:

“Our study, combining analysing the chemistry and anatomy of this fossil, demonstrates that Prototaxites cannot be placed within the fungal group. As previous researchers have excluded Prototaxites from other groups of large complex life, we concluded that Prototaxites belonged to a separate and now entirely extinct lineage of complex life. Prototaxites therefore represents an independent experiment that life made in building large, complex organisms, which we can only know about through exceptionally preserved fossils.”

Dr Nick Fraser, Keeper of Natural Sciences at National Museums Scotland said:

“We’re delighted to add these new specimens to our ever-growing natural science collections which document Scotland’s extraordinary place in the story of our natural world over billions of years to the present day. This study shows the value of museum collections in cutting-edge research as specimens collected over time are, cared for and made available for study for direct comparison or through the use of new technologies.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the National Museums of Scotland in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from extinct and extant Fungi” by Corentin C. Loron, Laura M. Cooper, Sean McMahon, Seán F. Jordan, Andrei V. Gromov, Matthew Humpage, Niall Rodgers, Laetitia Pichevin, Hendrik Vondracek, Ruaridh Alexander, Edwin Rodriguez Dzul, Alexander T. Brasier, Michael Krings, and Alexander J. Hetherington published in Science Advances.

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