An amazing fossil discovery in Iraqi Kurdistan has revealed possible evidence of deadly violence amongst Neanderthals around 75,000 years ago. Researchers from the University of Cambridge have identified a distinctive puncture wound in a Neanderthal shoulder blade (scapula). They believe a sharpened wooden spear caused the injury, which almost certainly proved fatal. The proposed Neanderthal wooden spear injury and other fossil material is the subject of a newly published scientific paper.

The discovery could represent the earliest known evidence of lethal interpersonal violence involving a wooden spear in the hominin fossil record.  However, this individual also suffered a horrific facial injury sometime before the fatal encounter.  It is likely this person was cared for, showing another, kinder side to hominins.

View of the entrance to Shanidar Cave in Iraqi Kurdistan. Picture credit: Professor Graeme Barker.

Picture credit: Professor Graeme Barker

A Deadly Neanderthal Wooden Spear Injury

The partial skeleton was discovered in Shanidar Cave, a famous archaeological site in the foothills of Iraqi Kurdistan. Scientists have named the individual Shanidar A. The remains belong to an adult Neanderthal estimated to have been approximately forty-five years old when they died. The archaeologists discovered an almost perfectly preserved scapula (shoulder blade). Remarkably, the fragile bone had survived beneath approximately 7.5 metres of rock and sediment.

Graphic showing the location of Shanidar Cave. Picture credit: Dr Emma Pomeroy/Antiquity.

Picture credit: Dr Emma Pomeroy/Antiquity

However, the scapula contained a distinctive circular hole measuring around fifteen millimetres across. Researchers concluded that a sharpened wooden spear probably caused the injury. A stone or flint spearhead would have produced a different wound, typically leaving a more angular opening.

Left scapula of Shanidar A, photographed in the University of Cambridge’s Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary Studies. Picture credit: University of Cambridge.

Picture credit: University of Cambridge

The weapon apparently entered the Neanderthal’s chest from the front. It then travelled through the body before penetrating the left shoulder blade. The spear would have damaged the lung and probably severed major blood vessels. Consequently, the unfortunate Neanderthal would have died rapidly.

Evidence of a Deliberate Killing?

The researchers examined the shape of the perforation and tiny fragments of displaced bone. Their analysis suggests that the spear entered from above at a downward angle. Furthermore, the position of the wound suggests that the weapon may have been deliberately aimed towards the heart.

Dr Emma Pomeroy, the study’s lead author from the University of Cambridge, explained that the injury was consistent with a potentially intentional killing. However, the researchers acknowledge that the death could have resulted from a hunting accident. Neanderthals probably hunted large prehistoric mammals at close quarters, sometimes using thrusting spears.

The hole in the scapula and the fragments found in the sediment below the perforation, held in place by Dr Emma Pomeroy. Picture credit: University of Cambridge.

Picture credit: University of Cambridge

Although the evidence suggests interpersonal violence, scientists cannot establish precisely what happened. Nor can they determine whether another Neanderthal or an early modern human (Homo sapiens) was responsible.

The research has been published in the scientific journal “Scientific Reports”.

Ancient Wooden Spears Were Effective Weapons

Wood rarely survives in the archaeological record. Nevertheless, exceptional discoveries demonstrate that prehistoric humans manufactured sophisticated wooden weapons hundreds of thousands of years ago. For example, archaeologists uncovered remarkably preserved wooden spears at Schöningen in Germany during the 1990s. These weapons, dating to approximately 200,000 years ago, provide important evidence of prehistoric woodworking skills. Some measured more than two metres long. Their carefully designed weight distribution suggests that they could have been used as throwing spears.

An even older wooden spear point was discovered at Clacton-on-Sea in Essex in 1911. This artefact dates to more than 400,000 years ago.

Multiple images of one of the spears found at Schöningen, Lower Saxony, Germany, in 1995, which is believed to be around 200,000-300,000 years old. This is Schöningen Spear II, replicas of which have been tested as javelin-style throwing spears. Picture credit: Dirk Leder et al. (eds), Weapons, Tools and Technology (2026).

Picture credit: Dirk Leder et al. (eds), Weapons, Tools and Technology (2026)

A related article examining the technology of Homo heidelbergensis: Ancient Hominins Skilled and Competent at Tool Making.

Ancient wooden spears demonstrate the sophisticated weapon-making capabilities of prehistoric humans. Similar technology may have caused the fatal injury to Shanidar A.

The Cambridge researchers compared the perforation in Shanidar A’s shoulder blade with experimental damage produced by reconstructed wooden spears. They found a close match. This suggests that Neanderthals possessed the technology necessary to inflict such an injury.

A Split Tooth Reveals Evidence of Neanderthal Compassion

The investigation also uncovered a fascinating contrast between violence and compassion. Alongside the scapula, archaeologists recovered a mostly complete right hand, fragments of ribs and seven teeth. One lower incisor had suffered a particularly severe injury. The tooth had split lengthways, leaving only half of its original structure.

Remarkably, substantial deposits of dental calculus had accumulated along the exposed root canal. This indicates that the Neanderthal survived the original injury for a considerable period.

The researchers suggest that Shanidar A lived for at least another year, perhaps considerably longer.

Various views of the mandibular left lateral incisor that had been spilt longitudinally. Views of the tooth, from left to right: top (chewing surface), bottom (root end). Middle: toward the front of the dental arch (mesial), toward the lips (labial), toward the back of the dental arch (distal), and toward the tongue (lingual). Picture credit: Dr Emma Pomeroy.

Picture credit: Dr Emma Pomeroy

The facial injury would have made eating extremely difficult and painful. Consequently, Shanidar A may have required assistance from other members of their community. The Shanidar A individual may have been cared for. Dr Pomeroy suggests that fellow Neanderthals could have provided soft food and other forms of support.

Previous research at Shanidar Cave indicates that prehistoric inhabitants soaked plant foods before cooking them. Such food preparation may have helped injured individuals survive.

Therefore, the fossil evidence provides a remarkable insight into Neanderthal social relationships.

Shanidar Cave and Neanderthal Funerary Behaviour

Shanidar Cave has transformed scientific understanding of our closest evolutionary relatives. Excavations during the 1950s uncovered several Neanderthal skeletons. Some individuals displayed evidence of serious disabilities but had survived for many years. These discoveries challenged outdated assumptions that Neanderthals were unintelligent and incapable of compassion.

More recent excavations have revealed further evidence of sophisticated social behaviour.

Shanidar A was discovered in 2020 within a small cluster of Neanderthal remains. Five individuals, comprising four adults and an infant, have now been identified in this confined area.

The bodies were deposited at different times, separated by thin layers of sediment. Intriguingly, the remains lie close to a prominent upright boulder.

Researchers believe this location may have served as a recognised place for depositing the dead. Shanidar A is the deepest individual yet discovered within the cluster. The body was positioned on its back, with the head facing east. The repeated use of this location suggests deliberate funerary behaviour, although the precise beliefs and motivations of these prehistoric people remain unknown.

A Remarkable Insight into Neanderthal Lives

The story of Shanidar A provides a compelling glimpse into life during the Late Pleistocene. On one hand, the fossilised shoulder blade possibly records a violent death, potentially resulting from a deliberate spear attack. On the other, the damaged tooth suggests that the individual had previously received support following a devastating injury. These discoveries highlight the complexity of Neanderthal societies.

Iberian art created by Homo neanderthalensis: Neanderthals Thought Like Us.

Far from being the brutish creatures portrayed in outdated reconstructions, Neanderthals possessed sophisticated technologies and complex social relationships. The latest research from the University of Cambridge provides further evidence that compassion and violence were both features of prehistoric human life.

Seventy-five thousand years after Shanidar A died, a small hole in a fragile shoulder blade has revealed an extraordinary story about our ancient hominin relatives.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Cambridge in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Evidence for funerary behaviour and lethal trauma in a new Neanderthal individual from Shanidar Cave” by Emma Pomeroy, Christopher O. Hunt, Lucía López-Polín, Nohemi Sala, Ana Pantoja Pérez, James Holman, Jessica Twyman, Paul Bennett, Tim Reynolds, Ross Lane, Duncan Pirrie and Graeme Barker published in Scientific Reports.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Hominin Figures and Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists have described a remarkable Jurassic mammaliaform fossil from China that provides fresh insights into the evolution of mammals. The 165-million-year-old animal, named Megacauda sungei, was adapted to life in the water. Furthermore, its exceptionally preserved skeleton reveals important evidence concerning the evolution of mammalian feeding and swallowing.

The international research team, led by scientists from the University of Chicago, published its findings in the prestigious scientific journal “Nature”. The discovery demonstrates that early mammal relatives had already evolved surprisingly sophisticated anatomical adaptations during the Middle Jurassic. Mammaliaforms are evolutionary predecessors to modern mammals, and their morphologies provide primary insights into the evolutionary origin of the Mammalia.

Megacauda sungei – A Remarkable Jurassic Mammal Fossil

The fossil was discovered in the Inner Mongolia region of China. It represents an extinct mammaliaform belonging to a group called the Docodonta. These animals were close evolutionary relatives of modern mammals. Megacauda sungei measured approximately forty to fifty centimetres in length and probably weighed between one and two kilograms. Its scientific name makes reference to its unusually large and robust tail.

The animal possessed several anatomical features associated with swimming. For example, its hind limbs resembled those of a modern platypus. In addition, its broad, flattened tail was superficially similar to that of a river otter. The researchers suggest that Megacauda was semi-aquatic. It probably spent considerable time swimming and searching for prey in freshwater habitats.

X-ray fluorescence photograph of the Megacauda sungei fossil specimen. Picture credit: April I. Neander.

Picture credit: April I. Neander

Its discovery provides further evidence that early mammal relatives occupied a variety of ecological niches long before the evolution of modern mammalian groups.

An Important Discovery Concerning Mammalian Evolution

Perhaps the most significant aspect of this Jurassic mammal fossil concerns the preservation of delicate throat bones. The specimen preserves elements of the hyoid apparatus. These small bones support structures associated with the tongue, throat and swallowing mechanism. In living mammals, the hyoid apparatus helps coordinate the movement of chewed food from the mouth towards the oesophagus. This enables mammals to process and swallow food efficiently.

Professor Zhe-Xi Luo, the senior author of the study, explained the evolutionary significance of this anatomical innovation.

Professor Luo stated:

“This is an incredibly important evolutionary innovation.”

The evolution of this sophisticated feeding mechanism helped mammals exploit a wide range of food sources. Different groups could develop specialised teeth for consuming plants, insects, meat or a combination of foods. Consequently, the development of mammal-like swallowing mechanisms may have contributed to the remarkable dietary diversity of mammals. The hyoid apparatus also plays an important role in suckling in living mammals.

April I. Neander (left) and Zhe-Xi Luo (right) in their lab at the University of Chicago. Picture credit: Matt Wood.

Picture credit: Matt Wood

Exceptional Fossil Preservation Reveals Ancient Throat Anatomy

The fossil of Megacauda sungei is particularly important because its delicate throat structures are exceptionally well preserved. Researchers compared these structures with those of living mammals, including opossums. The similarities provide valuable evidence concerning the early evolution of mammalian feeding mechanisms.

During the COVID-19 pandemic, study co-author Chang-Fu Zhou arranged for the fossil to undergo detailed scientific imaging. The specimen was examined using computed tomography (CT) scanning and X-ray fluorescence imaging. These techniques allowed researchers to investigate anatomical structures that would otherwise have been difficult to study.

April Neander, a scientific artist and CT imaging specialist at the University of Chicago, helped visualise the fossil’s intricate anatomy. The resulting images revealed important details of the throat, pelvis, hind limbs and tail.

April I. Neander looks at CT scan images of Megacauda sungei. Picture credit: Matt Wood.

Picture credit: Matt Wood

A Jurassic “Otter” That Hunted Small Vertebrates

The skeleton also provides compelling evidence of a semi-aquatic lifestyle. The hind feet possessed elongated outer digits, whilst the tail included broad, H-shaped vertebrae. These anatomical features suggest that the animal could propel itself through water.  It may have filled a role in the ancient ecosystem similar to that of an extant mink or otter.

Its skull contained robust canine teeth and specialised cheek teeth capable of slicing and processing meat. Intriguingly, the researchers identified tiny fragments of vertebrate bones preserved in the stomach region. These remains suggest that Megacauda consumed small vertebrates. Salamanders, which were abundant in the same fossil deposits, may have been among its prey. The fossil therefore provides evidence of both the animal’s locomotion and its diet.

Megacauda, a 165-million-year-old mammal predecessor from China, had strong hind limbs and a broad tail for swimming. Stomach content analysis suggest it preyed on small vertebrates such as salamanders. Picture credit: April I. Neander.

Picture credit: April I. Neander

Not the First Swimming Docodont

The discovery builds upon earlier research into Jurassic mammaliaforms. In 2006, Professor Luo and colleagues described Castorocauda, another semi-aquatic docodont from China. This animal also possessed adaptations associated with swimming. However, Megacauda sungei is geologically older and preserves additional anatomical information.

The research team also previously described Microdocodon gracilis, a much smaller Jurassic mammaliaform. This animal possessed mammal-like hyoid bones and provided important evidence concerning the evolution of swallowing. Together, these discoveries demonstrate that docodonts were remarkably diverse.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s article from 2019 about the discovery of M. gracilis: Early Mammaliaforms Could Swallow Just Like Us.

Some species were adapted to climbing trees, whilst others evolved specialised features for life in freshwater environments.

Ancient Mammal Relatives Thrived Alongside Dinosaurs

During the Jurassic Period, dinosaurs dominated terrestrial ecosystems. Nevertheless, the discovery of Megacauda sungei highlights the diversity of the smaller vertebrates living alongside them. Early mammal relatives were not restricted to a single body plan or ecological role. Instead, they evolved different ways of moving, feeding and exploiting their environments. The remarkable preservation of Megacauda provides scientists with a rare opportunity to investigate several of these adaptations in one fossil specimen.

Importantly, the discovery indicates that sophisticated throat structures associated with mammalian feeding evolved long before the appearance of modern mammal groups. This Jurassic mammal fossil therefore provides another important piece of evidence documenting the complex evolutionary history of mammals.

It also reminds us that the Mesozoic was home to a remarkable variety of other vertebrates, many of which possessed surprisingly modern anatomical adaptations.

Research suggests that it was not the Dinosauria that held back the evolutionary development of our ancestors: Other Mammals Not Dinosaurs Held the Mammals Back.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Chicago in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A Jurassic mammaliaform swimmer and transformation of the mammalian pharynx” by Y. Li, P. Li, A. I. Neander, H. Zhang, C.-F. Zhou, T. Martin and Z.-X. Luo published in Nature.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Prehistoric Mammals and Dinosaurs.