Spinosaurid dinosaurs, made famous by their appearance in the Jurassic Park film franchise, have a fascinating evolutionary history. Recently published research suggests that this unusual group of predatory theropods originated in Europe before spreading into Africa, South America and Asia.

The findings provide fresh insights into how these remarkable theropods travelled across the ancient world and why they failed to establish themselves in some regions where other large predatory dinosaurs were present.

The research, led by scientists from the University of Bristol in collaboration with the University of Leeds, used computer modelling to investigate the evolutionary history and geographical distribution of the Spinosauridae.

An illustration of Cretaceous spinosaurid diversity, each in their respective palaeoenvironments. From left to right: South America (Irritator, Oxalaia); Africa (Spinosaurus, Suchomimus); Europe (Vallibonavenatrix, Riparovenator, Ceratosuchops, Baryonyx); and Asia (Ichthyovenator). Picture credit: Pedro Salas and Sergey Krasovskiy.

Picture credit: Pedro Salas & Sergey Krasovskiy

Everything Dinosaur posted information about this research earlier this month. We have now received the official media release from Leeds University.

To read our earlier article, which explores the European origins of spinosaurid dinosaurs and examines their multiple dispersal events: Study Suggests Spinosaurids Originated in Europe.

Interestingly, the study suggests that changing sea levels may have provided temporary opportunities for these dinosaurs to move between ancient landmasses. However, their apparent preference for warm, semi-aquatic environments may have restricted their ability to colonise new territories.

Spinosaurid Dinosaurs First Evolved in Europe

Spinosaurids were an unusual group of theropod dinosaurs, many of which possessed elongated, crocodile-like snouts, conical teeth and adaptations associated with catching fish and other aquatic prey. Perhaps the most famous member of this family is Spinosaurus, which became particularly well known following its appearance in the film “Jurassic Park III”, where it famously confronted Tyrannosaurus rex.

Other members of this distinctive group include Baryonyx, Suchomimus and Irritator.

A new species of Spinosaurus is described: New Scimitar-crested Spinosaurus Species Described.

Although fossils attributed to spinosaurids have been discovered across several continents, their evolutionary origins and the routes by which they spread have remained difficult to establish. The new research supports the hypothesis that the Spinosauridae originated in Europe. During the Early Cretaceous, members of this group diversified in areas that today form southern England, Portugal and Spain. European fossils, including those of Baryonyx walkeri, discovered in Surrey in 1983, provide important evidence of the presence of these distinctive theropods in Europe.

This research adds further weight to the significance of European fossil discoveries in understanding the evolutionary history of the Spinosauridae.

How Did Spinosaurid Dinosaurs Spread Across the Ancient World?

One of the most interesting aspects of the research concerns the geographical routes taken by these dinosaurs. The scientists used computer modelling to investigate the evolutionary relationships and geographical distribution of spinosaurids. Their analysis indicates that there were at least two separate dispersal events from Europe into Africa and South America, together with at least one dispersal from Europe into Asia.

These findings suggest that the worldwide distribution of spinosaurids was not the result of a single migration event. Instead, their evolutionary history involved several separate movements between ancient geographical regions.

The new research also provides an intriguing explanation for how spinosaurids might have reached Asia.

The scientists suggest that falling sea levels may have exposed land connections across an ancient ocean that had submerged much of Eastern Europe. These temporary land bridges could have provided opportunities for dinosaurs to move between geographical regions. The proposed dispersal into Asia may have occurred during one of two periods, approximately 140 million or 120 million years ago.

Probable pathways for the dispersal of Spinosauridae. Dispersal pathways relate to spinosaurines (red) and baryonychines (yellow). The dispersal routes were reconstructed using BioGeoBEARS and plotted on an Early Aptian (approx. 121.8 Ma) base map redrawn from Scotese. Points indicate where spinosaurid taxa occur in the BioGeoBEARS dataset. Picture credit: Zak Lewis.

Picture credit: Zak Lewis

This is an interesting reminder that the geography of the Cretaceous Period was very different from the modern world. Continental positions, changing sea levels and the development of new ocean basins continually altered the distribution of suitable habitats and opportunities for animal migration.

Why Were Spinosaurid Dinosaurs Missing from Some Continents?

Despite their widespread distribution, spinosaurid fossils have not been reliably identified from North America, Australia or Antarctica. This is particularly intriguing because other large predatory dinosaurs successfully colonised these regions. Why did spinosaurids apparently fail to establish populations in these parts of the world?

The research suggests that their specialised ecological requirements may provide an explanation.

By examining existing palaeoclimate models, the scientists investigated the environmental conditions associated with spinosaurid fossil discoveries. Their findings indicate that these dinosaurs generally inhabited warm, semi-aquatic environments, with estimated mean annual temperatures of approximately 26.1°C to 33.1°C. The environments also appear to have experienced relatively limited seasonal temperature variation, estimated at approximately ±8.46°C.

These conditions may have been particularly important for dinosaurs that relied on aquatic and shoreline habitats for feeding. The researchers found that the environmental preferences inferred for spinosaurids were more restricted than those identified in several other medium-to-large theropod groups.

Consequently, cooler climates, greater seasonal temperature fluctuations and unsuitable aquatic habitats may have presented significant barriers to their geographical expansion.

It is important to remember that the absence of confirmed spinosaurid fossils from a particular continent does not necessarily prove that these dinosaurs never lived there. Fossil preservation is uneven, and the amount of geological material available for investigation varies considerably between regions.

Nevertheless, the research provides a plausible explanation for the comparatively restricted geographical distribution of this fascinating dinosaur family.

Could Climate Have Contributed to the Extinction of Spinosaurids?

The researchers believe that their findings may have implications for understanding the eventual extinction of spinosaurid dinosaurs.

Dr Cassius Morrison from the University of Leeds explained that these specialised dinosaurs appear to have been particularly sensitive to their environments and habitats.

This raises an interesting possibility. If spinosaurids depended on relatively warm climates and suitable semi-aquatic environments, significant environmental changes could have reduced the availability of the habitats they needed to survive.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Spinosaurids are among the most fascinating of all the predatory dinosaurs. We tend to think of large theropods as highly adaptable animals, but this research reminds us that different dinosaur groups occupied very specific ecological niches. Their evolutionary success may have depended on having access to just the right combination of climate, water and food resources. It is fascinating to think that changes in these conditions could have influenced the distribution and eventual extinction of such remarkable animals.”

The researchers also suggest that their findings have relevance to modern conservation biology. Understanding how specialised animals respond to changing environmental conditions may help scientists assess the vulnerability of species facing today’s climate crisis.

New Insights into the Evolution of Spinosaurid Dinosaurs

This latest research adds another important piece to the evolutionary puzzle surrounding the Spinosauridae. The study suggests that these remarkable theropods originated in Europe before spreading into other parts of the ancient world through several separate dispersal events.

Changing sea levels may have created temporary opportunities for migration, whilst climatic conditions and habitat requirements appear to have influenced where these dinosaurs could successfully establish populations.

For palaeontologists, the findings demonstrate the importance of combining fossil discoveries, evolutionary relationships and computer modelling to reconstruct the history of prehistoric animals.

The research also highlights the continuing importance of European fossil discoveries, particularly those from southern England and the Iberian Peninsula, in helping scientists understand the origins of this distinctive group of dinosaurs.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Leeds in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Sailing to Gondwana: multiple waves of spinosaurid dispersal to the southern continents” by Zak E. Lewis, Charlie R. Scherer, Tom T. P. van der Linden, Paul J. Byrne Bethany Burke, Colin Boisvert, Ezekiel V. O’Callaghan; Kenneth C. Rayburn, Robert Mayer; Chance Guest; Harry T. Jones, Tristan Moran; Steven J. R. Allain and Cassius Morrison published in Royal Society Open Science.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys and Prehistoric Animal Models.

A remarkable theropod discovery is providing fresh insights into the diets of prehistoric animals. Scientists have identified a new species of small, feathered dinosaur that appears to have been specially adapted to eat fruit. Named Infernogallus jamesi, this unusual, potential fruit-eating dinosaur lived in North America during the Late Cretaceous and shared its environment with famous dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus rex and Edmontosaurus annectens.

Life reconstruction of the Hell Chicken Infernogallus munching on early fruit, while a T. rex lurks in the background. Picture credit: Danielle Dufault.

Picture credit: Danielle Dufault

Nicknamed the “Hell Chicken”, Infernogallus jamesi belonged to a group of bird-like dinosaurs called caenagnathids (pronounced seen-nag-nay-thids). Although these dinosaurs were related to meat-eating theropods, the new research suggests that this particular species had evolved a highly specialised diet, feeding on fleshy fruits produced by flowering plants. The discovery is particularly significant because it provides some of the strongest evidence yet that dinosaurs developed specialised adaptations for eating fruit.

An article from 2024 providing further information on the Caenagnathidae family: Getting to Grips with the Remarkable Caenagnathidae Family.

Meet Infernogallus – The “Hell Chicken” Dinosaur

The fossils of Infernogallus jamesi were discovered in the famous Hell Creek Formation, a geological formation that extends across parts of Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota and Wyoming in the United States. This is one of the most celebrated dinosaur-bearing deposits in the world. During the Late Cretaceous, approximately sixty-six million years ago, the region was home to an extraordinary variety of prehistoric animals, including Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Nanotyrannus, Ankylosaurus, Edmontosaurus and numerous other dinosaurs.

Despite living alongside some of the largest dinosaurs ever to walk on land, Infernogallus was relatively small. It was approximately the size of a modern turkey and weighed around twelve kilograms.

Infernogallus jamesi “Hell Chicken” fossil specimen (left), skeletal drawing (centre) and a size comparison with a turkey (right). Picture credit: Funston et al (2026).

Picture credit: Funston et al (2026)

The name Infernogallus translates as “hell chicken”, a reference to the Hell Creek Formation where its fossils were discovered. The specific name, “jamesi”, honours James William Boyd, the grandfather of Clint Boyd from the North Dakota Geological Survey, and one of the authors of the scientific paper. Clint’s grandfather inspired his interest in palaeontology.

Importantly, the holotype specimen includes a nearly complete, articulated skull and part of the skeleton. The holotype skull of I. jamesi is the first articulated and nearly complete skull discovered for a caenagnathid oviraptorosaur. Complete skulls of small theropod dinosaurs are exceptionally rare, making this fossil particularly valuable to palaeontologists.

The fossils are currently on display at the Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) in Toronto, Canada.

An Extraordinary Skull Reveals a Taste for Fruit

The most remarkable feature of Infernogallus is its unusual skull anatomy. Researchers from Stony Brook University, the Royal Ontario Museum and the North Dakota Geological Survey used CT scanning to reconstruct the skull and investigate how its jaw muscles operated. Their analysis revealed an arrangement of chewing muscles that is highly unusual among non-avian dinosaurs.

The researchers discovered that the palatal bones, which form the roof of the mouth, curved downwards into the oral cavity. This altered the arrangement of important jaw muscles, positioning some of them to work in a forward-and-backward direction rather than simply powering an up-and-down biting movement.

Consequently, Infernogallus appears to have been capable of moving its beak backwards and forwards while processing food.

This is quite different from the powerful vertical biting action associated with large predatory dinosaurs such as Tyrannosaurus rex.

Cranial anatomy of Infernogallus jamesi gen. et. sp. nov. Photograph (a) and line drawing (b) of the skull of ROM VP 65050 in left lateral view. A μCT reconstruction of the skull and mandible (c), with each bone segmented separately (colours) and retrodeformed. A μCT reconstruction (d) with the mandible removed to show the palatal bones, which protrude ventrally below the cheek margin and the mandibular articulation point of the quadrate. An idealised reconstruction of the skull and mandible (e) as they would have appeared in life, showing distinctive reduction of infratemporal fenestra (blue arrow), and rearrangement of pterygoid musculature (orange line) compared to archetypal oviraptorid Citipati osmolskae (f). Picture credit: Funston et al (2026).

Picture credit: Funston et al (2026)

The researchers identified similarities between the jaw mechanics of Infernogallus and those of certain modern fruit-eating birds, particularly the vulturine parrot (Psittrichas). Although these animals are not closely related, their similar feeding adaptations provide an excellent example of convergent evolution. This occurs when unrelated animals independently evolve comparable anatomical features because they face similar ecological challenges.

In this instance, the researchers suggest that the unusual chewing mechanism evolved to help Infernogallus process soft foods, particularly fleshy fruits.

A Fruit-eating Dinosaur?

Unlike many plant-eating dinosaurs, which relied on their teeth or swallowed stones to help break down vegetation, Infernogallus had a toothless beak adapted for a different feeding strategy. Its skull contained specialised ridges and grooves that would have helped the animal mash and shear soft plant material.

The researchers propose that it was particularly well adapted to processing stone fruits, removing the fleshy material surrounding the central seed. This is an important distinction. Rather than simply swallowing pieces of vegetation, Infernogallus appears to have been capable of mechanically processing food inside its mouth. Such adaptations are relatively unusual in the animal kingdom. Complex chewing mechanisms are found in mammals, including humans, and in certain birds that specialise in eating fruit.

The discovery suggests that some dinosaurs developed similarly sophisticated feeding mechanisms.

Did Fruit-Eating Dinosaurs Help Flowering Plants Spread?

The discovery of Infernogallus jamesi has implications that extend beyond our understanding of dinosaur diets. During the Cretaceous Period, flowering plants, known scientifically as angiosperms, were becoming increasingly diverse and widespread. They were gradually transforming terrestrial ecosystems, with fruits becoming an increasingly important food resource.

The researchers identified an intriguing relationship between the diversification of caenagnathid dinosaurs and the increasing abundance and diversity of fleshy fruits.

Could these small dinosaurs have helped flowering plants spread?

Modern birds, mammals and reptiles play an important role in seed dispersal. By eating fruits and subsequently depositing the seeds elsewhere, these animals help plants colonise new areas. The researchers suggest that caenagnathid dinosaurs might have performed a similar ecological role during the Late Cretaceous.

However, this remains a hypothesis requiring further investigation. The fossils provide compelling evidence of specialised fruit-eating adaptations, but they do not directly demonstrate how far these dinosaurs transported seeds or how important they were to the spread of flowering plants. Nevertheless, the possibility introduces an exciting new dimension to our understanding of Cretaceous ecosystems.

Fossil Proves Mahogany evolved during the Cretaceous: Mahogany Dates Back to the Dinosaurs.

A New Perspective on Dinosaur Diversity

The discovery of Infernogallus demonstrates just how much there is still to learn about dinosaur evolution. For many years, palaeontologists have recognised that theropod dinosaurs evolved into a remarkable variety of ecological specialists. However, the discovery of a dinosaur with such specialised adaptations for eating fruit highlights how diverse their feeding strategies may have been.

It also raises interesting questions about the relationship between dinosaurs and flowering plants during the final stages of the Cretaceous. The researchers suggest that caenagnathids may have evolved alongside the increasing availability of fleshy fruits, developing specialised skull anatomy to exploit this food source.

This discovery also contributes to wider discussions about dinosaur diversity towards the end of the Cretaceous and whether dinosaur populations were already experiencing a decline before the mass extinction event approximately sixty-six million years ago.

The holotype skull (left), a CT scan of the fossil material (centre) and a line drawing of the reconstructed skull (right). Picture credit: Funston et al (2026).

Picture credit: Funston et al (2026)

To read a recently published article about the discovery of another new species of caenagnathid: Student Discovers New Species of Caenagnathid.

Fruit-eating Theropod Discovery Provides Insights into Dinosaur Evolution and Ecology

Senior author of the paper, Dr David Evans (Royal Ontario Museum) commented:

“Complete remains of small dinosaurs like Infernogallus are very rare in the fossil record. The strange skull of Infernogallus is an exciting find because it reveals surprising insights into dinosaur evolution and feeding specialization. This discovery shows that we still have a lot to learn about the world of T. rex, and about dinosaurs more generally.”

The unusual skull of Infernogallus reveals surprising insights into dinosaur evolution and feeding specialisation.  It reminds us that the dinosaur dominated food webs of the Mesozoic were just as complex as those we see today.

Sometimes, the most remarkable dinosaur discoveries are not the biggest or most fearsome animals, but the small and unusual species that reveal something entirely unexpected about prehistoric life.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Royal Ontario Museum in the compilation of this article about a fruit-eating dinosaur.

The scientific paper: “Fruit-eating adaptations in a Late Cretaceous oviraptorosaur (Theropoda)” by Gregory F. Funston, Thomas W. Dudgeon, D. Jade Simon, Danielle M. Dufault, Clint Boyd, Denver Fowler, Philip J. Currie and David C. Evans published in Nature Communications.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Theropods and Other Dinosaurs.

A new species of British dinosaur has been scientifically described more than two decades after its fossils were discovered in Surrey. Named Paludohadros proudlovii, this plant-eating dinosaur lived approximately 125 million years ago during the Early Cretaceous. The fossils were excavated from a brickworks in 2001 and subsequently donated to the Natural History Museum in London. A detailed examination of the fossil material has revealed that the specimen represents a previously unrecognised species of iguanodontian dinosaur.

The discovery also has a poignant human story. The dinosaur has been named in honour of a former quarry manager who died shortly before the fossils were unearthed.

Skull reconstruction: Shaded areas represent material present in the holotype. Abbreviations: ar, articular; ba, basioccipital; d, dentary; f, frontal; j, jugal; orb, orbit; pa, palpebral; par, paraoccipital process; pd, predentary; pf, prefrontal; pm, premaxilla; q, quadrate; qj, quadratojugal; s, surangular; sq, squamosal, stf, supratemporal fenestra. Scale bar equals 10 cm. Picture credit: Sacamoto et al.

Picture credit: Sacamoto et al

Paludohadros proudlovii – A New Iguanodontian Dinosaur

Paludohadros proudlovii belonged to the Iguanodontia, a diverse group of predominantly herbivorous ornithopod dinosaurs. Famous members of this group include Iguanodon and Mantellisaurus. These dinosaurs are often associated with distinctive thumb spikes and adaptations for processing tough vegetation.

The newly named dinosaur was discovered at the Ewhurst brick and roof tile works, also known as Smokejacks Brickworks, in Surrey. Its fossils come from the Weald Clay Formation, deposited when much of southern England consisted of wetlands, rivers and muddy floodplains.

Predentary in left lateral (A), anterior (B) and ventral (C) views. Abbreviations: d, denticle; fo, foramen; vp, ventral process. Scale bar equals 5 cm. Picture credit: Sacamoto et al.

Picture credit: Sacamoto et al

The genus name reflects this ancient environment. It incorporates the Latin word “palus”, meaning swamp.

The specimen was approximately five metres long and is estimated to have weighed between 1.5 and two tonnes. However, examination of its bones suggests that it had not reached skeletal maturity when it died. A fully grown adult could potentially have been substantially larger.

Identifying in situ skull bones. Picture credit: Tim Burgess (Wienerberger Ltd).

Picture credit: Tim Burgess (Wienerberger Ltd)

A Dinosaur Named in Honour of Will Proudlove

The species name “proudlovii” honours Will Proudlove, who worked at the Ewhurst brickworks and eventually became its manager. Will had a keen interest in fossils and was fascinated by the possibility of discovering prehistoric animals as successive layers of clay were removed from the quarry. Sadly, he died aged just 35, shortly before the dinosaur was excavated.

His wife Rachael and their two young children, Ellie and Matt, were invited to see the fossil excavation in 2001. More than twenty-five years later, the family has learnt that the fossils represent an entirely new type of dinosaur. The naming of Paludohadros proudlovii provides a lasting tribute to Will and his enthusiasm for natural history.

Will Proudlove with his children Ellie and Matt. Picture credit: The Proudlove Family.

Picture credit: The Proudlove Family

Did Paludohadros Live Alongside Baryonyx?

Intriguingly, the fossils of Paludohadros were discovered approximately a hundred metres from the location where the famous theropod dinosaur Baryonyx walkeri was found in 1983. Baryonyx was a large, predominantly fish-eating predator characterised by an elongated snout, conical teeth and enormous claws on its hands. However, fossil evidence indicates that fish were not its only food source. Remains of a juvenile iguanodontian were discovered in association with the original Baryonyx specimen.

The newly described iguanodontian Paludohadros proudlovii in the foreground. In the background a Baryonyx wades through a shallow lake. The fossils of Paludohadros were found within a hundred metres of the Baryonyx walkeri holotype. Picture credit: Guilherme Gehr.

Picture credit: Guilherme Gehr

Professor Susannah Maidment, a senior author of the new study, explained that the identity of this young dinosaur remains uncertain.

Professor Maidment commented:

“Paludohadros was found just 100 metres away from Baryonyx, whose fossils we also look after at the Natural History Museum. While Baryonyx is best known for eating fish, this dinosaur’s last meal also included a baby iguanodontian. We can’t tell for certain which species this came from, so it’s possible that Baryonyx could have been scavenging on the remains of young Paludohadros or even hunting them when it had the opportunity.”

It is possible that Baryonyx occasionally hunted juvenile Paludohadros or scavenged their carcasses. However, there is currently insufficient evidence to establish a direct predator-prey relationship between these two dinosaurs. Nevertheless, their discoveries provide a fascinating insight into the dinosaur communities that inhabited southern England during the Early Cretaceous.

More British Dinosaurs Awaiting Discovery

For many years, numerous iguanodontian fossils from southern England were assigned to familiar genera such as Iguanodon and Mantellisaurus. More detailed anatomical studies have challenged these traditional classifications. Recent research has resulted in the naming of several additional British iguanodontians, including Brighstoneus, Comptonatus and the distinctive sail-backed Istiorachis.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s article about the discovery of Brighstoneus: New Iguanodontid from the Isle of Wight.

Everything Dinosaur’s article from 2024 highlighting the discovery of Comptonatus: Comptonatus – Another New Ornithopod from the Isle of Wight.

The scientific description of Paludohadros proudlovii adds to this growing diversity.

Ellie Proudlove, daughter of Will, being shown the dinosaur during its excavation from the quarry. Picture credit: Tim Burgess (Wienerberger Ltd) and used with permission from Ellie Proudlove.

Picture credit: Tim Burgess (Wienerberger Ltd) and used with permission from Ellie Proudlove

Our 2025 post about the discovery of Istiorachis macarthurae: New Sail-backed Iguanodontid Described.

The research was led by Ricardo Sacamoto, a PhD student associated with the Natural History Museum and the University of São Paulo. The team identified distinctive anatomical characteristics in the teeth, jaws and limb bones that support the establishment of the new genus and species.

Further examination of museum collections has already identified additional fossils attributable to Paludohadros, including material originally collected during the 1950s.

Sacamoto intends to continue studying the Natural History Museum’s extensive iguanodontian collections as part of his doctoral research.

There may be more previously unrecognised dinosaur species waiting to be identified.

The discovery of Paludohadros proudlovii demonstrates the enduring scientific importance of natural history collections. Sometimes, discovering a new dinosaur does not require another expedition into the field. Instead, the next remarkable discovery could already be sitting in a museum drawer.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges that assistance of a media release from the London Natural History Museum in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A new iguanodontian dinosaur from the Weald Clay Formation (Lower Cretaceous) of Smokejacks Brickworks, southern England” by Ricardo J. Sacamoto, Jeremy A. F. Lockwood, Max C. Langer, Brett Clark, Paul M. Barrett, Alice Turner and Susannah C. R. Maidment published in the Journal of Systematic Palaeontology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Models Including British Prehistoric Animal Figures.