Mike | Everything Dinosaur Blog

About Mike

Mike runs Everything Dinosaur, a UK-based mail order company specialising in the sale of dinosaur and prehistoric animal models, He works alongside Sue, and between them they have become the "go to guys" for museum quality prehistoric animal models and figures. An avid fossil collector and reader of dinosaur books, Mike researchers and writes articles about palaeontology, fossil discoveries, research and of course, dinosaur and prehistoric animal models.

12 05, 2026

Spotting a Gorgeous Ammonite Fossil in a Floor Tile

By Mike|2026-05-12T13:54:13+01:00May 12th, 2026|Categories: Photos/Pictures of Fossils|0 Comments

Waiting for a plane is tiresome. However, with our interest in fossils there is always the opportunity to go on an impromptu fossil hunt. For example, whilst at Brandenburg Airport Berlin (Flughafen Berlin Brandenburg – BER), Sue and I passed the time examining the numerous ammonite and other invertebrate fossils preserved in the polished floor tiles of the airport. We took the opportunity to photograph some specimens including one example that we termed “an ammonite fossil in floor tile”. To document an example of a fossil preserved in the Jurassic limestone.

Berlin Brandenburg airport ammonite fossil.

Large numbers of ammonite fossils can be found on the polished floor tiles of Berlin Brandenburg airport. The floor is constructed from Jura limestone, and it is highly fossiliferous. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The stone floor of the airport consists of Jura limestone. Builders use this common material in many German public buildings, including airports. For example, during a visit to Nuremberg Airport (Flughafen Nürnberg), we photographed numerous Jurassic fossils preserved in the floor tiles.

An earlier blog post about finding fossils at Flughafen Nürnberg: Fossil Hunting at Nuremberg Airport.

The limestone contains a rich variety of fossils. Visitors can observe the remains of marine invertebrates, including ammonites and belemnites, in the polished surfaces.

An Ammonite Fossil in Floor Tile is Spotted

The suture lines on the shell are clearly visible. Palaeontologists often identify ammonite species by studying the septa and the suture patterns inside the shell. The animal formed septa as internal walls that divided the shell into separate chambers. As the ammonite grew, it built new chambers and sealed the older ones with these walls. Each septum met the outer shell wall and created a line called a suture. When the shell fossilised, these sutures often remained visible after erosion removed the outer shell layer.

The shape and complexity of the sutures help scientists identify different ammonite groups and species. Some species developed simple, gently curved sutures. Other species evolved extremely intricate patterns with frilled or fern-like edges.

Pen-like belemnite fossils are also preserved in the stone.

The CollectA ammonite and belemnite 2020 models next to examples of fossils. These figures are excellent representations of the living animals. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Models of Ammonites and Belemnites

Models of ammonites and belemnites help collectors. They can be used to help explain what the prehistoric animal probably looked like. Several companies make these models. For example, the image (above) shows the CollectA Pleuroceras ammonite model and the CollectA belemnite.

To view the range of CollectA prehistoric life models: CollectA Prehistoric Life Prehistoric Animal Figures.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Airports can feel stressful at times. However, we soon discovered an amazing distraction at the Berlin airport. As we walked through the terminal, we spotted beautifully preserved Jurassic fossils in the floor tiles. Moreover, the polished Jura limestone revealed an incredible array of ancient marine organisms. We observed ammonites, belemnites and other invertebrate remains preserved in remarkable detail.”

He added:

“Consequently, the time passed quickly as we searched the floor for more fossils. Every few metres, another specimen caught our attention. We even managed to photograph an ammonite specimen as we went through the baggage check. It turned an ordinary wait at the airport into a memorable fossil hunting experience.”

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Figures and Dinosaur Models.

11 05, 2026

New Triassic Carnivorous Dinosaur Identified from Ghost Ranch

By Mike|2026-05-11T17:02:31+01:00May 11th, 2026|Categories: Palaeontological articles|0 Comments

Researchers from Virginia Tech (Virginia, USA) have identified a new species of Late Triassic dinosaur. The dinosaur has been named Ptychotherates bucculentus. This new carnivorous dinosaur taxon has been erected based on the detailed examination of an incomplete, well-preserved but jumbled up skull fossil (specimen number CM 31368). The skull comes from the world-famous Coelophysis Quarry from the Ghost Ranch fossil site in New Mexico. Significantly, the scientists have assigned P. bucculentus to the Herrerasauria. It might be one of the last surviving members of this earliest-evolving clade of meat-eating dinosaurs.

A New Herrerasaurian Dinosaur

In 1982, a field team from the Carnegie Museum of Natural History (Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA), excavated the fossil from the Coelophysis Quarry. This site contains the preserved remains of numerous vertebrates, but the fossil assemblage is dominated by fossils of the theropod Coelophysis bauri. The fossil bones of over a thousand individuals have been reported. The skull remained in storage and was not studied. However, one of the paper’s authors Sterling Nesbitt (Department of Geosciences, Virginia Tech), arranged for the skull to be scanned using computer tomography (CT). The individual bones were identified and a 3D model of the skull constructed.

When digitally reconstructed the scientists discovered that the jugal bone was unusually tall. Ptychotherates has proportionately the dorsoventrally deepest jugal known for any Triassic-aged dinosaur. Phylogenetic analyses align Ptychotherates bucculentus with Tawa hallae, Chindesaurus bryansmalli and Daemonosaurus chauliodus within the Herrerasauria clade and closely related to the Herrerasauridae family. The researchers erected the clade Morphoraptora to nest these dinosaurs in. The Morphoraptora are united by several autapomorphies. For example, these dinosaurs have extremely fine serrations on their teeth.

Artistic rendition of Ptychotherates bucculentus. Picture credit: Megan Sodano for Virginia Tech.

Picture credit: Megan Sodano for Virginia Tech

The Morphoraptora and Radiohead

Morphoraptora is from the Greek for “form”, “shape” and raptor for “robber”. This reflects the morphological convergence between members of this clade and theropod dinosaurs. It loosely translates as “body snatcher” a reference to the close anatomical similarities between the carnivorous Morphoraptora and the Theropoda. In addition, it honours the 2007 song by the English rock band Radiohead in the album In Rainbows, which one of the authors of the study listened to whilst preparing the manuscript.

The open-access paper was published in the journal Papers in Palaeontology.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s blog post from 2009 about the discovery of Tawa hallae: New Meat-eating Dinosaur from the Chinle Formation.

Our 2011 post about the discovery of Daemonosaurus: The Little “Demon” of Ghost Ranch.

Ptychotherates bucculentus – What’s in a Name?

The skull of Ptychotherates (pronounced Tie-cho-the-rate-ees), was relatively short, but proportionately deep. Although, no substantial postcranial material is known, scientists estimate that this dinosaur probably measured around 2.2 metres in length. Like the closely related Tawa, Chindesaurus and Daemonosaurus, it was probably lightly built with the tail comprising around fifty percent of the total body length.

The genus name means “folded jaw hunter”. This references the carnivorous nature of this dinosaur and also the “folds” and unusual orientations of the fossil material that hampered reconstruction. The species name is from the Latin and translates as “with full cheeks” in reference to the exceptionally tall jugal.

Co-author of the study holding the skull fossil of Ptychotherates bucculentus.

One of the co-authors of the study Simba Srivastava holding the preserved skull of Ptychotherates bucculentus. Picture credit: Spencer Coppage for Virginia Tech.

Picture credit: Spencer Coppage for Virginia Tech

A Late Triassic Hunter

The paper also notes that the phylogenetic relationships of these early saurischian dinosaurs remain controversial. Unfortunately, the fossil material ascribed to Ptychotherates bucculentus, Tawa hallae, Chindesaurus bryansmalli and Daemonosaurus chauliodus does not overlap sufficiently to permit direct fossil comparison. The lack of fossils makes determining the phylogeny difficult. However, the discovery of herrerasaurians in the Coelophysis Quarry establishes that different types of meat-eating dinosaur co-existed during the Late Triassic. Furthermore, the occurrence of morphoraptorans in the Coelophysis Quarry assemblage extends their stratigraphic range later in the Triassic than previously thought.

The exact age of Ptychotherates is hard to determine. However, it is estimated that this lithe meat-eater lived more recently than 210 million years ago. Ptychotherates bucculentus may have lived shortly before the great extinction event that marked the end of the Triassic. Moreover, scientists have not found any younger herrerasaurian fossils. This discovery suggests that the mass extinction event may have wiped out this dinosaur lineage. In addition, palaeontologists have not found Late Triassic herrerasaurians anywhere else in the world. Therefore, the region that is now southwestern USA may have served as the clade’s final refuge before their extinction.

It had been thought that the end-Triassic extinction wiped out competitors to the Dinosauria. However, with the discovery of Ptychotherates it suggests that some long-standing dinosaur lineages also died out at this time.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from Virginia Tech in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A new taxon of saurischian dinosaur from the Coelophysis Quarry of New Mexico, USA (Triassic: latest Norian or Rhaetian) highlights herrerasaurian diversity in the latest Triassic” by Simba Srivastava and Sterling J. Nesbitt published in Papers in Palaeontology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Triassic Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals.

10 05, 2026

Exclusive Views of the CollectA Deluxe Magnapaulia Model

By Mike|2026-05-06T10:21:52+01:00May 10th, 2026|Categories: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Animal Models|0 Comments

The brief period of fine weather has permitted us to take some photographs of the CollectA Deluxe Magnapaulia model outside. This splendid figure was introduced earlier this year. It is a 1:60 scale model of the giant lambeosaurine Magnapaulia laticaudus. It is already proving popular with dinosaur model collectors.

The CollectA Deluxe Magnapaulia dinosaur model.

The CollectA Deluxe 1:60 scale replica of Magnapaulia shown in left lateral view. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

To view the range of CollectA Deluxe models available: CollectA Age of Dinosaurs Scale Models.

The CollectA Deluxe Magnapaulia Model

The CollectA hadrosaur figure measures a little over twenty centimetres in length. The impressive hump on the back is approximately nine centimetres off the ground. Although, the shape of the crest is unknown in this dinosaur it has been given a bright red crest that has been swept backwards from the skull. In addition, this excellent dinosaur model has a bright red wattle. This reflects the growing evidence for the presence of soft tissue structures in the Hadrosauridae.

To read an article about the discovery of a soft tissue crest in a saurolophine hadrosaur (Edmontosaurus regalis): Duck-billed Dinosaur with a Comb like a Rooster.

Some fossils representing skin tissue impressions are known. The CollectA design team have worked hard to incorporate what is known about the integument of Magnapaulia into their figure.

The CollectA Deluxe Magnapaulia model (1:60 scale).

The CollectA Deluxe 1:60 scale Magnapaulia figure. The integument consists of many small scales but with areas of larger scales over the thigh and the shoulder area. This reflects actual fossil material. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Originally named as Lambeosaurus laticaudus in 1981, it was later assigned to the Hypacrosaurus genus. However, in 2012 it was given a distinct genus following a revision of the fossil material.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Duck-billed Dinosaur Models.

9 05, 2026

Beautiful Muttaburrasaurus Drawing by Talented Artist

By Mike|2026-05-05T16:32:19+01:00May 9th, 2026|Categories: Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Drawings|0 Comments

Our thanks to talented artist Caldey for sharing with us her beautiful Muttaburrasaurus drawing. The Muttaburrasaurus pair are gently rubbing their heads together. Such behaviour is seen in living birds. This behaviour is often referred to as allopreening. It reaffirms social bonding. Extant birds indulge in such behaviours including the rubbing of beaks (billing). It is thought to reinforce the relationship between a female and her mate.

A drawing of a pair of Muttaburrasaurus dinosaurs.

A pair of nuzzling Muttaburrasaurus. Caldey has drawn a male and female together. Perhaps they are a bonded pair. The male gentle nuzzles the female. The male Muttaburrasaurus has the bright blue bulla, whereas the female’s bulla is less prominent and a more muted colour. Picture credit: Caldey.

Picture credit: Caldey

Caldey depicts the male gently caressing the top of the female’s head with his lower jaw. The scales on the dinosaurs have been skilfully created, and the affectionate pair are shown against a stunning sunset backdrop.

The male has the bright blue bulla, whereas the female’s is a more muted tone.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur praised the Muttaburrasaurus drawing and stated:

“Thank you Caldey for sending in your wonderful artwork. It is a beautiful drawing, and we greatly appreciate the amazing details that you have incorporated into your dinosaur illustration.”

A Muttaburrasaurus Drawing

We don’t receive many drawings of ornithopods. A Muttaburrasaurus drawing is most welcome. Occasionally, we receive illustrations of iguanodonts, but on the whole we tend to receive more illustrations of theropod dinosaurs. Caldey has produced ornithopod drawings previously. For example, she kindly sent us a wonderful drawing of the head of a Parasaurolophus.

Our thanks to young artist Caldey who sent into Everything Dinosaur a fine illustration of the head of a Parasaurolophus. Picture credit: Caldey.

Picture credit: Caldey

In addition, back in 2023 Caldey sent in a colourful Lambeosaurus drawing.

To view Caldey’s drawing of a lambeosaurine hadrosaur: A Beautiful Lambeosaurus Illustration.

Our thanks once again for the illustration of an affectionate pair of Muttaburrasaurus.

8 05, 2026

Happy 100th Birthday Sir David Attenborough

By Mike|2026-05-04T14:58:31+01:00May 8th, 2026|Categories: Famous Figures|0 Comments

Today, May the 8th (2026), is the 100th birthday of the naturalist, broadcaster and author Sir David Attenborough. Many happy returns Sir David. For many of us, indeed for most of us, Sir David has always been there. His voice and storytelling have shaped how we understand the natural world. I have grown up with Sir David Attenborough; he has been a constant throughout my life. I clearly remember the seminal series “Life on Earth” being broadcast in 1979. It was groundbreaking at the time, and it remains influential today.

I also recall watching the series on cryptozoology narrated by Sir David Attenborough. It was entitled “Fabulous Animals”, and it was a BBC children’s television series. The programme demonstrated his unique ability to inspire curiosity, even when discussing the unknown.

On a personal note, I have had the privilege to correspond with Sir David. One of my most treasured possessions is a signed photograph that he kindly sent to me. It serves as a lasting reminder of his generosity and the impact he has had on so many lives.

Still enthusing about the Natural World. Many happy returns Sir David.

Happy 100th Birthday Sir David Attenborough

Over the decades, Sir David has achieved something truly remarkable. He has brought the natural world into our homes with clarity and authority. In addition, his work has consistently highlighted the fragility of ecosystems. As a result, millions of people have developed a deeper appreciation for biodiversity and conservation.

Importantly, his passion extends beyond living species. His interest in deep time and prehistoric life is equally compelling. This was clearly demonstrated in “Lost Worlds, Vanished Lives”. It was a four-part documentary series aired in 1989 that explored fossils. Consequently, Sir David helped audiences understand extinction, evolution, and the vast timescales involved in our planet’s history.

In addition, he has explored the Dinosauria on numerous occasions. Notably in a 2016 documentary examining huge sauropod fossils found in Argentina: Attenborough and the Giant Dinosaur.

The fossils were later assigned to a new species of titanosaur – Patagotitan mayorum.

Patagotitan skeleton on display at the London Natural History Museum.

The enormous body of the titanosaur (Patagotitan mayorum) towers over visitors. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Other prehistoric animal themed projects associated with this gifted broadcaster include the first two series of “Prehistoric Planet”. He narrated both series. In addition, the television series “First Life” that was broadcast in 2010.

Many Happy Returns

Today, as we celebrate his 100th birthday, it is fitting to reflect on his extraordinary legacy. His work has not only educated but also motivated action. Through his storytelling, he has encouraged us all to take responsibility for the natural world.

Therefore, we thank Sir David Attenborough. His contribution to science communication and conservation is unparalleled. His influence will undoubtedly continue for generations to come.

Many happy returns Sir David.

7 05, 2026

What Was Dunkleosteus? Facts About the Giant Armoured Fish (Part 2)

By Mike|2026-05-07T22:12:04+01:00May 7th, 2026|Categories: Teaching|0 Comments

Earlier this week, we published an article that answered questions about Dunkleosteus. Team members receive emails and often we get asked about prehistoric animals. Questions about the giant Devonian fish Dunkleosteus frequently occur. We try our best to respond to all the queries received. In today’s article we aim to answer more questions about this enigmatic Palaeozoic predator. In addition, in response to a question we comment on the accuracy of Dunkleosteus models.

To read our early blog post answering questions about Dunkleosteus: What was Dunkleosteus? Facts About a Giant Prehistoric Fish.

The CollectA 1:20 scale Dunkleosteus compared to a museum specimen.

A comparison between the new for 2018 CollectA 1;20 scale replica of Dunkleosteus and a museum specimen. Everything Dinosaur team members receive questions about Dunkleosteus and are often asked to comment about Dunkleosteus models. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Why Is Dunkleosteus Famous?

This is an excellent question. It is probably well known as it was unlike any living fish. It’s large size and the huge, shearing plates that formed its jaws make it look monstrous. The armour plates fossilise much more readily than soft tissue. As a result, museums tend to include a reconstruction of this fish in galleries highlighting ancient marine life.

Dunkleosteus features prominently in books about Palaeozoic creatures. Its terrifying appearance has made Dunkleosteus a popular prehistoric animal for palaeoart reconstructions. Furthermore, lots of models of this placoderm have been produced.

Dunkleosteus - examining the placoderms.

Swimming into view a placoderm model – Dunkleosteus. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows a Dunkleosteus model from Schleich which was introduced in 2017.

To view the range of Schleich figures available from Everything Dinosaur: Schleich Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animal Figures.

Today, Dunkleosteus remains one of the best-known predators from the Devonian.

What Type of Fish Was Dunkleosteus?

Dunkleosteus belonged to a class of prehistoric fish called Placodermi. Placoderms were armoured jawed fish that thrived during the Silurian and Devonian. They were diverse, filled numerous ecological niches and were geographically widespread. Placoderms represent some of the earliest jawed vertebrates. Therefore, they played an important role in vertebrate evolution. Having armoured bodies has helped preservation. As a result, they tend to be disproportionately more common in the Devonian fossil record compared to other vertebrates.

Australian placoderm fossil provides new information on vertebrate evolution: Fossil Turns Vertebrate Evolution on its Head.

We get asked “was Dunkleosteus a shark”? Dunkleosteus was not a shark. Sharks belong to an entirely different class of cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes). However, Dunkleosteus did co-exist with early sharks. Fossils of shark genera are found in the same strata as Dunkleosteus fossils.

Was Dunkleosteus Bigger Than a Great White Shark?

This is a popular question. It seems that fans of prehistoric animals like comparing extinct predators with living predators. To answer this question, we have to consider what we know about the size of the largest species of Dunkleosteus (D. terrelli) and what we know about the biggest specimens of Carcharodon carcharias. Unfortunately, size estimates for Dunkleosteus terrelli vary. The fossil record is fragmentary, and little is known about the postcranial skeleton. For example, size estimates for D. terrelli range from under four metres in length to in excess of ten metres.

Carcharodon carcharias is one of the largest living hypercarnivorous fish. Sexual dimorphism occurs in this species; mature females tend to be larger than mature males. Marine biologists have estimated that this shark could reach a length of around six metres. Intriguingly, a study published in 2023 (Russell K. Engelman) proposed that the deeper body proportions as opposed to the more streamlined sharks would have made Dunkleosteus terrelli heavier than a shark of similar length.

Size estimates for Dunkleosteus terrelli compared to Carcharodon carcharias. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

What is the Most Accurate Dunkleosteus Figure?

Fortunately, collectors have lots of Dunkleosteus models to choose from. In addition, there is a Dunkleosteus model to suit most budgets. One of our favourites and a figure that still stands up to scientific scrutiny is the Wild Safari Prehistoric World Dunkleosteus.

Searching for Dunkleosteus models. The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Dunkleosteus.

The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Dunkleosteus model. A replica of a fish with a powerful bite.

The dermal armour of this figure has attracted praise and the shearing plates equipped with their long fangs reflect fossil material.

To view the range of Wild Safari Prehistoric World models: Wild Safari Prehistoric Animal Models.

A more recent Dunkleosteus figure is Zaha the Dunkleosteus from PNSO. This model was introduced in 2021. It is much larger than the Wild Safari prehistoric world figure, in fact it’s one of the largest Dunkleosteus models we stock. It measures twenty-three centimetres long. It has been beautifully painted, and the model has an articulated jaw too.

PNSO Zaha the Dunkleosteus the second prehistoric fish to the PNSO mid-size model range after Haylee the Helicoprion.

The PNSO Dunkleosteus is an excellent figure, and we recommend it for serious collectors.

To read a customer review of the PNSO Dunkleosteus: Zaha the Dunkleosteus Model Reviewed.

To view the range of PNSO prehistoric animal figures in stock: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs Figures.

Dunkleosteus Models for Dioramas

Several species of Dunkleosteus have been erected. However, not all of them are valid. We often get asked to recommend a Dunkleosteus figure that works well in dioramas. Model makers are often looking for a figure to represent smaller species than D. terrelli. We advise them to use the small Dunkleosteus model in the CollectA set of mini prehistoric marine animals. It is under ten centimetres in length yet has lots of good detail for a small figure. It is a useful model to have when making small scale dioramas of Devonian life.

When it comes to Dunkleosteus its popularity does not seem to be wavering. For example, Papo intends to introduce a Dunkleosteus figure in 2027. We welcome this development and we look forward to seeing how the design team at Papo interpret this famous Devonian predator.

The multi-award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal and Dinosaur Models.

6 05, 2026

Beautiful Eryops Fossil Skeleton on Display

By Mike|2026-05-07T22:10:53+01:00May 6th, 2026|Categories: Photos/Pictures of Fossils|0 Comments

As a child, one of my favourite prehistoric animals was the giant temnospondyl Eryops. It always brings me pleasure when I come across fossils of this Early Permian predator. Indeed, just viewing a reconstructed skeleton makes me smile. When at the London Natural History Museum, I try to make time to see the Eryops megacephalus skeleton on display.

A cast of a Eryops megacephalus skeleton on display at the London Natural History Museum. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

I remember seeing pictures of this strange amphibian in prehistoric animal books. I marvelled at its huge size and enormous head. It remains one of my favourite Palaeozoic prehistoric animals.

Recalling pictures of Eryops megacephalus in old books: My Favourite Picture of Eryops.

One day, perhaps a model making company will make a detailed replica of this giant temnospondyl. Let’s hope so.

For models of Palaeozoic creatures and other prehistoric animals: Prehistoric Animal Models.

5 05, 2026

What Was Dunkleosteus? Facts About the Giant Armoured Fish (Part 1)

By Mike|2026-05-07T13:45:44+01:00May 5th, 2026|Categories: Teaching|0 Comments

At Everything Dinosaur, we receive emails from fans of prehistoric animals. We frequently receive questions about dinosaurs; however, we get asked questions about lots of other prehistoric animals too. For example, we have compiled a list of questions about the giant, Late Devonian placoderm Dunkleosteus. It seems that this apex predator has lots of fans. As well as asking questions about Dunkleosteus and its fossils we also get asked for advice on which Dunkleosteus model to buy.

An illustration of Dunkleosteus terrelli.

An illustration of the giant placoderm Dunkleosteus. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

What was Dunkleosteus?

The extinct Dunkleosteus was a genus of armoured fish that lived during the Late Devonian. It is regarded as an apex predator with its huge jaws and heavy armour. Several species have been named, and it is classified as a member of the Arthrodira (jointed neck) within the class Placodermi. Placoderms thrived during the Silurian and Devonian. The head and thorax of these fishes were covered in armoured plates. Their skeletons were cartilaginous and they evolved into a huge variety of forms. The prehistoric fish Dunkleosteus remains one of the most famous marine predators of the Palaeozoic.

How many species of Dunkleosteus have been Named?

Around ten species have been erected. Fossils ascribed to the Dunkleosteus genus have been found in the United States, Canada, Europe including north-western Russia and some controversial material has been assigned from Morocco. However, the validity of most of them has been challenged as the fossil record is fragmentary. The type species and largest is Dunkleosteus terrelli.

To read an article about viviparity in placoderms: A Placoderm Parent!

How Big was Dunkleosteus?

It is mainly the dermal armour that is preserved as fossils. Consequently, life reconstructions and size estimates vary as the hind quarters of this fish are virtually unknown. As a result, many reconstructions are based on much smaller, related placoderms that have a more complete fossil record. Therefore, size estimates vary as body proportion ratios for this prehistoric fish remain poorly understood.

For example, size estimates for the largest species D. terrelli range from under four metres long to excess of nine metres in length. Most studies produce a body length of around five metres. However, a study using the jaw perimeter of extant sharks suggested that some Dunkleosteus terrelli specimens could reach lengths of around seven to nine metres.

Did Dunkleosteus Have Teeth?

No, Dunkleosteus did not possess true teeth like modern sharks, reptiles, or mammals. Instead, this giant placoderm had sharp bony plates inside its jaws. These plates formed self-sharpening cutting edges. The upper and lower jaw plates worked like enormous shears. Consequently, Dunkleosteus could slice through flesh, armour, and bone. Bite force studies indicate that Dunkleosteus had an extremely powerful bite, one of the strongest bites of any known fish. Even juveniles are thought to have had strong bites. How fast the jaws could open and whether suction feeding was possible remains open to debate.

As the jaw plates wore down, they continued to sharpen naturally during use. Therefore, Dunkleosteus always maintained effective cutting surfaces.

The placoderm Dunkleosteus. A Dunkleosteus fossil.

A Dunkleosteus cast on display. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

What did Dunkleosteus Eat?

Dunkleosteus is thought to have been pelagic – an active swimmer inhabiting the water column. Fossilised boluses (regurgitated meal remains) have been found in association with Dunkleosteus specimens. These boluses contain fish bones which suggests that it ate other fish, including other placoderms. Bite force studies have proposed that shelled cephalopods such as orthocones or ammonoids were also prey.

In addition, puncture marks on one Dunkleosteus fossil in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History (Ohio), indicates that Dunkleosteus may have been a cannibal.

We frequently get asked “did Dunkleosteus eat sharks”? Several shark taxa have been found in the Cleveland Shale Member which also yields fossils of Dunkleosteus terrelli. For example, Cladoselache, Ctenacanthus and Stethacanthus. It is possible that sharks formed part of the diet of a large Dunkleosteus. Conversely, sharks such as Cladoselache probably hunted smaller placoderms and may have tackled juvenile Dunkleosteus.

Which is the Best Dunkleosteus Model?

As Dunkleosteus looks like a monster it has proved a popular choice for model making companies. For example, CollectA, Mojo Fun, Wild Safari, Schleich and PNSO have all made a Dunkleosteus model. Papo is currently working on a Dunkleosteus figure.

At Everything Dinosaur, we stock a range of prehistoric animal figures, including impressive marine species and ancient fish models. These replicas make excellent display pieces for collectors, prehistoric animal fans, fossil collectors and science educators. The Mojo Fun Dunkleosteus model is popular.

The Mojo Fun Dunkleosteus model introduced in 2019.

To view the range of Mojo Fun models in stock: Mojo Fun Prehistoric Animal Models.

CollectA have produced a larger Dunkleosteus in their Deluxe range. It measures a whopping twenty-eight centimetres in length, and it has an articulated jaw.

The CollectA 1:20 scale Dunkleosteus replica which was introduced in 2018.

CollectA Deluxe figures: CollectA Prehistoric Life Deluxe.

The PNSO Dunkleosteus Model

Furthermore, the PNSO Dunkleosteus is popular. This figure also has an articulated jaw. The jaw movements mimic mechanical studies that calculated how the jaw of Dunkleosteus moved. A Zaha the Dunkleosteus PNSO figure depicts this fish as a more streamlined, pelagic predator.

A stunning model of a placoderm – the PNSO Dunkleosteus model.

PNSO models and figures: PNSO Prehistoric Animal Figures.

The variation in the Dunkleosteus figures currently manufactured reflects the different views held by scientists. Certainly, model collectors and placoderm fans have a variety of figures to choose from.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Dunkleosteus is one of those iconic animals from the Palaeozoic. It ruled ancient seas long before the first dinosaurs. As such, this enigmatic monster fish is extremely popular, we get asked questions about it, and we do our best to provide helpful information. Our fact sheet contains more information about Dunkleosteus terrelli.”

Even today, this armoured fish remains one of the most extraordinary vertebrates known to science. In a second, future article, we attempt to answer more questions about this enigmatic Devonian predator.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Accurate Prehistoric Animal Models.

4 05, 2026

Ammonite Model Proves Invaluable When on a Guided Fossil Walk

By Mike|2026-05-04T21:50:18+01:00May 4th, 2026|Categories: Bullyland Prehistoric Animal Figures|2 Comments

Lyme Regis is famous for its fossils. Indeed, thousands of tourists flock to this part of the “Jurassic Coast” on the hunt for fossils. It is sensible to book a fossil walk with an experienced guide. Our chum Brandon Lennon took the guys out from the “All the Gear” YouTube channel for a guided fossil walk. Under Brandon’s expert guidance lots of amazing fossils were found including ammonites. Indeed, we spotted something from our range attached to the rucksacks used for the walk. It was a Bullyland ammonite model.

A pair of brightly coloured rucksacks ready for a fossil hunting expedition on the Dorset coast. Picture credit: Brandon Lennon.

Picture credit: Brandon Lennon

We spotted the now retired Bullyland Belemnite model too.

The Bullyland Ammonite Model

This replica of a typical ammonite is used by palaeontologists, geologists, science communicators and guided fossil walk leaders to illustrate what a living ammonite looked like. Fossilised ammonite shells found on the Dorset Coast do not provide much evidence. The ammonite model is used to explain about the animal that once lived in that shell. It is a great prop. Museum staff also use this model. They place it next to ammonite fossils on display. It depicts the living animal next to the fossil material.

The Bullyland ammonite model is often used in museum displays to depict the living animal next to fossil material. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

To view the range of Bullyland prehistoric animal figures in stock: Bullyworld Prehistoric Animal Models.

The rucksacks are a brightly coloured. We suspect that this is a sensible precaution. If they are taken off during the walk, then they will be easy to spot amongst the grey rocks of the Lyme Regis shoreline.

Brandon emailed telling us that the “All the Gear” fossil walk was great fun. In addition, the resulting YouTube video has already attracted over 160, 000 views. It must be all that coprolite that the guys found aided by the expertise of their fossil walk guide.

A Bullyland ammonite model attached to a rucksack.

The Bullyland ammonite model attached to the rucksack. Picture credit: Brandon Lennon.

Picture credit: Brandon Lennon

The ammonite replica looks at home attached to the rucksack. The rucksack is packed and ready for departure.

For more information about fossil walks in the Lyme Regis area, take a look at Brandon Lennon’s website: Lyme Regis Fossil Walks.

Newly Described Dacentrurus Skull Fossil Provides a Head’s Up for Stegosaur Evolution
Newly Described Dacentrurus Skull Fossil Provides a Head’s Up for Stegosaur Evolution

4 05, 2026

Newly Described Dacentrurus Skull Fossil Provides a Head’s Up for Stegosaur Evolution

By Mike|2026-05-06T09:46:30+01:00May 4th, 2026|Categories: Palaeontological articles|0 Comments

A remarkable new, open access study published in the journal “Vertebrate Zoology” is transforming what we know about stegosaurian skulls and stegosaur evolution. Researchers describe the most complete stegosaurian skull ever found in Europe. The skull fossil material (MAP-9029) along with an associated mid cervical vertebra (MAP-9030) are confidently assigned to the stegosaur taxon Dacentrurus armatus. This discovery provides rare insight into the anatomy and evolution of these iconic armoured dinosaurs. The Dacentrurus armatus skull fossil provides valuable information concerning skull evolution in stegosaurs.

Dacentrurus armatus skull fossil (MAP-9029) and interpretative line drawings.

Skull fossil (MAP-9029) of Dacentrurus armatus Owen, 1875 from the Están de Colón (RD-34) fossil site (Riodeva, Teruel, Spain). Photographs (A, C, E) and interpretative drawings (B, D, F) of MAP-9029 in dorsal (A, B), ventral (C, D), and proximal (E, F) views. Picture credit: Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos.

Picture credit: Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos

Stegosaur Cranial Material is Exceptionally Rare

Stegosaur skull fossils are exceptionally rare. Most specimens are fragmentary or badly crushed. Only three stegosaur taxa have a considerable proportion of their skull known.

These taxa are:

Stegosaurus stenops – from the Late Jurassic of the western United States and Portugal.
Hesperosaurus mjosi – from the Late Cretaceous of the western United States (Wyoming and Montana).
Huayangosaurus taibaii – from the Middle Jurassic of south-western China.

A fossiliferous site was discovered in the municipality of Riodeva (Teruel Province, Aragón, north-eastern Spain) in 2004. The site known as RD-34 consists of deposits from the Villar del Arzobispo Formation. The strata are believed to date from around 150 to 145 million years ago (upper Kimmeridgian to Tithonian faunal stages). Numerous dinosaur fossils have been excavated, including fossils that represent two stegosaurs.

Importantly, dinosaur skulls are rarely preserved. However, MAP-9029 includes key elements such as the snout, upper jaw and braincase. As a result, palaeontologists can now study Dacentrurus cranial anatomy in far greater detail than before. This helps scientists reconstruct feeding behaviour and sensory capabilities in stegosaurs.

Understanding Dacentrurus

Dacentrurus is thought to be one of the largest European stegosaurs. Size estimates vary due to the fragmentary nature of the fossil material, but it could have reached a length in excess of nine metres. The first fossils of this armoured dinosaur were unearthed in a clay pit in Wiltshire in 1874. The jumbled block of postcranial material is on display at the London Natural History Museum. Dacentrurus material has been reported elsewhere in the UK and mainland Europe. It was one of the earliest stegosaurs to be discovered. Like other stegosaurs, it had rows of plates and spikes running along its body.

The Dacentrurus armatus specimen on display at the Natural History Museum (London). It is specimen number NHMUK PV OR46013. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

However, until now, its skull remained poorly understood. Most known material consisted of postcranial remains such as vertebrae and armour. Therefore, this new cranial material fills a major gap in our knowledge.

New Insights into Stegosaur Skull Evolution

The cranial material consists of the back part of the skull roof, including a fragment of the right prefrontal, both frontals, both postorbitals, both squamosals, the parietal, the supraoccipital, and a possible fragment of the left paroccipital process

The study of the Dacentrurus armatus skull reveals several previously unknown characteristics of the Dacentrurus cranium. In addition, the scientists identified a new diagnostic trait (an autapomorphy). The new autapomorphy relates to the angle of the supraoccipital bone in relation to the roof of the skull. Moreover, the team conducted a new phylogenetic analysis. This resulted in a revised evolutionary tree for stegosaurs. Notably, the researchers proposed a new clade called Neostegosauria consisting of the Stegosaurinae and the Dacentrurinae subfamilies.

Thyreophoran phylogeny and geographical distribution.

Timeline showing armoured dinosaur taxa and geographic distribution during the Jurassic and Cretaceous. Picture credit: Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos.

Picture credit: Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos

The Neostegosauria includes medium to large stegosaurs from Europe, Africa, North America and Asia. Consequently, it highlights how widespread and diverse these dinosaurs were during the Jurassic and Early Cretaceous.

Dacentrurus armatus Skull Refines the Stegosauria

The new analysis also refines relationships within Stegosauria. Traditionally, stegosaurs were divided into major groups such as Huayangosauridae and Stegosauridae. However, this study suggests a more complex evolutionary pattern. It integrates new data from cranial anatomy, which was previously lacking. As a result, scientists can now test evolutionary hypotheses with greater confidence.

This is particularly important because skull features often provide critical phylogenetic signals. Therefore, this discovery has implications far beyond a single genus.

Skulls of ornithischian dinosaurs (A–E) and interpretative drawings in dorsal view (F–H). A, Lesothosaurus diagnosticus Galton, 1978 (NHMUK PV RU B23). B Scelidosaurus harrisonii Owen, 1861 (NHMUK PV R1111). C, F Dacentrurus armatus Owen, 1875 (MAP-9029). D Stegosaurus stenops Marsh, 1887 (NHMUK PV R36730). E Europelta carbonensis Kirkland et al., 2013 (AR-1-544/10). G Huayangosaurus taibaii Dong, Tang & Zhou, 1982 (modified from Sereno and Dong 1992). H S. stenops. The differently shaped skulls could suggest different feeding behaviours. Picture credit: Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos.

Picture credit: Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos

The study demonstrates the importance of skull material as an aid to phylogenetic analysis. Well-preserved skull fossils can significantly improve knowledge about dinosaur evolution. Furthermore, this research highlights how new fossil material can reshape long-standing ideas.

Haolonggood Dacentrurus dinosaur models.

Haolonggood introduced two detailed Dacentrurus models in 2024.

The picture (above) shows two Dacentrurus models from Haolonggood. These figures were introduced in 2024. The models have been praised for their scientific accuracy.

To view the range of Haolonggood prehistoric animal figures in stock: Haolonggood Dinosaur Models.

Even relatively well-known dinosaurs like Dacentrurus can still surprise us. Moreover, the discovery strengthens Europe’s role in stegosaur research. The Iberian Peninsula continues to yield fossils that are crucial for understanding Jurassic ecosystems. As new fossils come to light, our picture of these remarkable armoured dinosaurs will only continue to evolve.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of one of the study’s authors in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “New insights into the phylogeny and skull evolution of stegosaurian dinosaurs: An extraordinary cranium from the European Late Jurassic (Dinosauria: Stegosauria)” by Sergio Sánchez-Fenollosa and Alberto Cobos published in Vertebrate Zoology.