A newly published scientific paper outlining the latest Rhamphorhynchus research has solved a mystery about pterosaur flight.  Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight.  Thanks to this new study, an evolutionary puzzle relating to how pterosaurs flew has been solved.  Controlled powered flight was achieved with the aid of a lattice-like vane on the tip of the tail of many types of early flying reptile.  The diamond-shaped vane consisted of interwoven membranes.  This prevented their long tails fluttering like flags in the wind.  These structures helped to stabilise these creatures in flight and may have aided steering.

A rhamphorhynchine pterosaur illustration. The diamond-shaped tail vane was made from interwoven membranes, and this played a key role in flight stability. Picture credit: Natalia Jagielska.

Picture credit: Natalia Jagielska

Previous research revealed that maintaining stiffness in the tail vane was crucial to enable early pterosaur’s flight.  How exactly this was achieved remained unknown. However, this new research, published in eLife, has provided fresh data on pterosaur anatomy.  This in turn, permitted this puzzle about the flight of pterosaurs to be resolved.

The study was led by palaeontologists from the University of Edinburgh.  The researchers discovered that the tail vane probably behaved like a sail on a ship.  It became tense as the wind blew through the cross-linked membranes thus allowing these reptiles to steer themselves through the sky.

An illustration of a pterosaur.  Note the diamond-shaped tail vane. Rhamphorhynchus research has solved a mystery about pterosaur flight. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Rhamphorhynchus Research

The hollow bones of pterosaurs have poor fossil preservation potential.  However, thanks to the remarkable fossils from famous Lagerstätten such as the pterosaur material from Solnhofen in Germany, scientists have numerous, early non-pterodactyloid specimens to study.  Many of the most complete and best-preserved specimens represent Rhamphorhynchus muensteri.  Some of these fossils are preserved in three-dimensions and also include traces of soft tissue such as skin and flight membranes.

Recently, Everything Dinosaur reported upon the study of a giant Rhamphorhynchus: Rhamphorhynchus and Ontogenetic Niche Partitioning.

The scientists used a sophisticated research technique called Laser Simulated Fluorescence (LSF).  Exposing fossils to this intense light causes organic tissues almost invisible to the naked eye to glow.  The researchers were able to observe the delicate internal structures of the Rhamphorhynchus tail vane.  This provided the team with fresh insights into pterosaur anatomy and evolution.

Wild Safari Dinos Rhamphorhynchus figure. A typical non-pterodactyloid pterosaur.

The image (above) shows a replica of Rhamphorhynchus.  This pterosaur model is part of the Wild Safari Prehistoric World model range.

To view this range of prehistoric animal figures: Wild Safari Prehistoric World Figures.

Universities Collaborating with Museums

The research involved scientists from the University of Edinburgh and the Chinese University of Hong Kong in collaboration with the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh and the London Natural History Museum. It was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC).

Lead author of the study Dr Natalia Jagielska a PhD graduate from the University of Edinburgh stated:

“It never ceases to astound me that, despite the passing of hundreds of millions of years, we can put skin on the bone of animals we will never see in our lifetimes.”

Thinking of a practical implication for this research, Dr Jagielska added:

“Pterosaurs were wholly unique animals with no modern equivalents, with a huge elastic membrane stretching from their ankle to the tip of the hyper-elongated fourth finger. For all we know, figuring out how pterosaur membranes worked, may inspire new aircraft technologies.”

This newly published research provides a fascinating glimpse into early pterosaur evolution.  The tail vane was a critical structure that helped these amazing creatures dominate the skies.  However, later pterosaurs had much reduced tails and lost their tail vanes.  This opens up new lines of enquiry into the evolution of the Pterosauria.

Dr Nick Fraser, (Keeper of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland), said:

“Without the researchers’ vision to apply new technology to apparently well-understood fossils, this tail vane would have remained in the dark. It is exciting to now see a critical feature of the pterosaur’s anatomy so beautifully displayed.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Edinburgh in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “New soft tissue data of pterosaur tail vane reveals sophisticated, dynamic tensioning usage and expands its evolutionary origins” by Natalia Jagielska, Thomas G Kaye, Michael B Habib, Tatsuya Hirasawa and Michael Pittman published in eLife.

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Pterosaur Models and Toys.

Newly published research demonstrates that the super-sized canines of sabre-toothed predators were “optimal” for biting into prey.  Oversized canines have evolved on several occasions within tetrapods.  Perhaps, the most famous example are the sabre-toothed cats, such as Smilodon.  There have been numerous studies into the efficiency of Smilodon teeth.  This new study, published in the journal “Current Biology”, reveals why these canines were “functionally optimal” and highly effective at puncturing prey.

The Rebor Smilodon populator 1/11th scale figure posed with its mouth open. A beautiful replica of a Sabre-toothed cat.  A newly published study (January, 2025), highlights the efficiency of the large canines for puncturing prey. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows the Rebor Smilodon populator scale model.   This model is in the “jungle” colour scheme.  The figure possesses the huge sabre-teeth associated with this big cat.  The Smilodon teeth in this figure have been beautifully crafted.

To see the range of Rebor models and figures in stock at Everything Dinosaur: Rebor Figures and Models.

Studying Smilodon Teeth and the Evolution of Sabre-teeth

The research was led by scientists at the University of Bristol in collaboration with Monash University (Melbourne, Australia).  The study demonstrates that the long, sharp blade-like teeth gave sabre-toothed predators a significant advantage when it came to capturing and subduing prey.

The findings help to explain why sabre-teeth are seen so frequently in the fossil record.  This specialist dentition has evolved independently at least five times in the Mammalia.  In 2020, Everything Dinosaur team members wrote about a research paper that explored sabre-tooth hunting methods.

To read our article about this research: Sabre-toothed Predators Evolved Different Hunting Styles.

Big-toothed predator. The skull of a Smilodon fatalis (La Brea tar pits). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

A Possible Explanation for the Extinction of Sabre-toothed Predators

The researchers propose a possible explanation for the demise of sabre-toothed predators. Their increasing specialisation may have acted as an “evolutionary ratchet”.  They became highly efficient hunters. However, with their specialised teeth, they were more vulnerable to extinction when ecosystems changed and their prey became scarce.

The team, set out to test whether sabre-tooth shape was an optimal balance between two competing needs: sharp and slender enough to effectively puncture prey and blunt and robust enough to resist breaking. Using 3D-printed steel tooth replicas in a series of biting experiments and advanced computer simulations, the researchers analysed the shape and performance of ninety-five different carnivorous mammal teeth, including twenty-five sabre-toothed species.

Functional optimality drives the repeated evolution of extreme sabre-tooth forms. Picture credit: Dr Tahlia Pollock.

Picture credit: Dr Tahlia Pollock

Lead author of the research, Dr Tahlia Pollock from the University of Bristol explained:

“Our study helps us better understand how extreme adaptations evolve – not just in sabre-toothed predators but across nature. By combining biomechanics and evolutionary theory, we can uncover how natural selection shapes animals to perform specific tasks.”

“Dirk-toothed” and “Scimitar-toothed” Predators

This research challenged a presumption about Smilodon teeth and the dentition of sabre-toothed hunters.  Previously, scientists had grouped the canines of sabre-toothed predators into two, broad categories (ecomorphs).

These two categories are:

• “Dirk-toothed” – long, straight canines.
• “Scimitar-toothed” long, canines that have a greater curvature.

Instead, this study uncovered a spectrum of sabre-tooth shapes, from the long, curved teeth of the false sabre-toothed cat Barbourofelis fricki to the straighter, more robust teeth of the machairodont Dinofelis barlowi. This supports a growing body of research suggesting a greater diversity of hunting strategies among these predators than previously thought.

The research team hope to develop their research programme by including all tooth types. Their aim will be to explore the biomechanical trade-offs that shaped the evolution of diverse dentition across the animal kingdom.

Co-author Professor Alistair Evans (Monash University) added:

“The findings not only deepen our understanding of sabre-toothed predators but also have broader implications for evolutionary biology and biomechanics. Insights from this research could even help inform bioinspired designs in engineering.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Functional optimality underpins the repeated evolution of the extreme ‘sabre-tooth’ morphology”  by Tahlia I. Pollock, William J. Deakin, Narimane Chatar, Pablo S. Milla Carmona, Douglass S. Rovinsky, Olga Panagiotopoulou, William M.G. Parker, Justin W. Adams, David P. Hocking, Philip C. J. Donoghue, Emily J. Rayfield and Alistair R. Evans published in Current Biology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.