Earlier this week, we published an article that answered questions about Dunkleosteus.  Team members receive emails and often we get asked about prehistoric animals.  Questions about the giant Devonian fish Dunkleosteus frequently occur.  We try our best to respond to all the queries received. In today’s article we aim to answer more questions about this enigmatic Palaeozoic predator. In addition, in response to a question we comment on the accuracy of Dunkleosteus models.

To read our early blog post answering questions about Dunkleosteus: What was Dunkleosteus? Facts About a Giant Prehistoric Fish.

A comparison between the new for 2018 CollectA 1;20 scale replica of Dunkleosteus and a museum specimen.  Everything Dinosaur team members receive questions about Dunkleosteus and are often asked to comment about Dunkleosteus models.  Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Why Is Dunkleosteus Famous?

This is an excellent question. It is probably well known as it was unlike any living fish. It’s large size and the huge, shearing plates that formed its jaws make it look monstrous. The armour plates fossilise much more readily than soft tissue. As a result, museums tend to include a reconstruction of this fish in galleries highlighting ancient marine life.

Dunkleosteus features prominently in books about Palaeozoic creatures. Its terrifying appearance has made Dunkleosteus a popular prehistoric animal for palaeoart reconstructions. Furthermore, lots of models of this placoderm have been produced.

Swimming into view a placoderm model – Dunkleosteus. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows a Dunkleosteus model from Schleich which was introduced in 2017.

To view the range of Schleich figures available from Everything Dinosaur: Schleich Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animal Figures.

Today, Dunkleosteus remains one of the best-known predators from the Devonian.

What Type of Fish Was Dunkleosteus?

Dunkleosteus belonged to a class of prehistoric fish called Placodermi. Placoderms were armoured jawed fish that thrived during the Silurian and Devonian.  They were diverse, filled numerous ecological niches and were geographically widespread. Placoderms represent some of the earliest jawed vertebrates. Therefore, they played an important role in vertebrate evolution. Having armoured bodies has helped preservation.  As a result, they tend to be disproportionately more common in the Devonian fossil record compared to other vertebrates.

Australian placoderm fossil provides new information on vertebrate evolution: Fossil Turns Vertebrate Evolution on its Head.

We get asked “was Dunkleosteus a shark”? Dunkleosteus was not a shark. Sharks belong to an entirely different class of cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes).  However, Dunkleosteus did co-exist with early sharks. Fossils of shark genera are found in the same strata as Dunkleosteus fossils.

Was Dunkleosteus Bigger Than a Great White Shark?

This is a popular question.  It seems that fans of prehistoric animals like comparing extinct predators with living predators.  To answer this question, we have to consider what we know about the size of the largest species of Dunkleosteus (D. terrelli) and what we know about the biggest specimens of Carcharodon carcharias.  Unfortunately, size estimates for Dunkleosteus terrelli vary.  The fossil record is fragmentary, and little is known about the postcranial skeleton.  For example, size estimates for D. terrelli range from under four metres in length to in excess of ten metres.

Carcharodon carcharias is one of the largest living hypercarnivorous fish. Sexual dimorphism occurs in this species; mature females tend to be larger than mature males.  Marine biologists have estimated that this shark could reach a length of around six metres. Intriguingly, a study published in 2023 (Russell K. Engelman) proposed that the deeper body proportions as opposed to the more streamlined sharks would have made Dunkleosteus terrelli heavier than a shark of similar length.

Size estimates for Dunkleosteus terrelli compared to Carcharodon carcharias. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

What is the Most Accurate Dunkleosteus Figure?

Fortunately, collectors have lots of Dunkleosteus models to choose from.  In addition, there is a Dunkleosteus model to suit most budgets.  One of our favourites and a figure that still stands up to scientific scrutiny is the Wild Safari Prehistoric World Dunkleosteus.

The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Dunkleosteus model. A replica of a fish with a powerful bite.

The dermal armour of this figure has attracted praise and the shearing plates equipped with their long fangs reflect fossil material.

To view the range of Wild Safari Prehistoric World models: Wild Safari Prehistoric Animal Models.

A more recent Dunkleosteus figure is Zaha the Dunkleosteus from PNSO.  This model was introduced in 2021.  It is much larger than the Wild Safari prehistoric world figure, in fact it’s one of the largest Dunkleosteus models we stock.  It measures twenty-three centimetres long.  It has been beautifully painted, and the model has an articulated jaw too.

PNSO Zaha the Dunkleosteus the second prehistoric fish to the PNSO mid-size model range after Haylee the Helicoprion.

The PNSO Dunkleosteus is an excellent figure, and we recommend it for serious collectors.

To read a customer review of the PNSO Dunkleosteus: Zaha the Dunkleosteus Model Reviewed.

To view the range of PNSO prehistoric animal figures in stock: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs Figures.

Dunkleosteus Models for Dioramas

Several species of Dunkleosteus have been erected.  However, not all of them are valid.  We often get asked to recommend a Dunkleosteus figure that works well in dioramas.  Model makers are often looking for a figure to represent smaller species than D. terrelli.  We advise them to use the small Dunkleosteus model in the CollectA set of mini prehistoric marine animals.  It is under ten centimetres in length yet has lots of good detail for a small figure.  It is a useful model to have when making small scale dioramas of Devonian life.

When it comes to Dunkleosteus its popularity does not seem to be wavering. For example, Papo intends to introduce a Dunkleosteus figure in 2027.  We welcome this development and we look forward to seeing how the design team at Papo interpret this famous Devonian predator.

The multi-award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal and Dinosaur Models.

At Everything Dinosaur, we receive emails from fans of prehistoric animals.  We frequently receive questions about dinosaurs; however, we get asked questions about lots of other prehistoric animals too.  For example, we have compiled a list of questions about the giant, Late Devonian placoderm Dunkleosteus.  It seems that this apex predator has lots of fans.  As well as asking questions about Dunkleosteus and its fossils we also get asked for advice on which Dunkleosteus model to buy.

An illustration of the giant placoderm Dunkleosteus. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

What was Dunkleosteus?

The extinct Dunkleosteus was a genus of armoured fish that lived during the Late Devonian.  It is regarded as an apex predator with its huge jaws and heavy armour.  Several species have been named, and it is classified as a member of the Arthrodira (jointed neck) within the class Placodermi. Placoderms thrived during the Silurian and Devonian. The head and thorax of these fishes were covered in armoured plates. Their skeletons were cartilaginous and they evolved into a huge variety of forms. The prehistoric fish Dunkleosteus remains one of the most famous marine predators of the Palaeozoic.

How many species of Dunkleosteus have been Named?

Around ten species have been erected. Fossils ascribed to the Dunkleosteus genus have been found in the United States, Canada, Europe including north-western Russia and some controversial material has been assigned from Morocco. However, the validity of most of them has been challenged as the fossil record is fragmentary. The type species and largest is Dunkleosteus terrelli.

To read an article about viviparity in placoderms: A Placoderm Parent!

How Big was Dunkleosteus?

It is mainly the dermal armour that is preserved as fossils. Consequently, life reconstructions and size estimates vary as the hind quarters of this fish are virtually unknown. As a result, many reconstructions are based on much smaller, related placoderms that have a more complete fossil record. Therefore, size estimates vary as body proportion ratios for this prehistoric fish remain poorly understood.

For example, size estimates for the largest species D. terrelli range from under four metres long to excess of nine metres in length. Most studies produce a body length of around five metres. However, a study using the jaw perimeter of extant sharks suggested that some Dunkleosteus terrelli specimens could reach lengths of around seven to nine metres.

Did Dunkleosteus Have Teeth?

No, Dunkleosteus did not possess true teeth like modern sharks, reptiles, or mammals. Instead, this giant placoderm had sharp bony plates inside its jaws. These plates formed self-sharpening cutting edges. The upper and lower jaw plates worked like enormous shears. Consequently, Dunkleosteus could slice through flesh, armour, and bone.  Bite force studies indicate that Dunkleosteus had an extremely powerful bite, one of the strongest bites of any known fish.  Even juveniles are thought to have had strong bites.  How fast the jaws could open and whether suction feeding was possible remains open to debate.

As the jaw plates wore down, they continued to sharpen naturally during use. Therefore, Dunkleosteus always maintained effective cutting surfaces.

A Dunkleosteus cast on display. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

What did Dunkleosteus Eat?

Dunkleosteus is thought to have been pelagic – an active swimmer inhabiting the water column. Fossilised boluses (regurgitated meal remains) have been found in association with Dunkleosteus specimens. These boluses contain fish bones which suggests that it ate other fish, including other placoderms. Bite force studies have proposed that shelled cephalopods such as orthocones or ammonoids were also prey.

In addition, puncture marks on one Dunkleosteus fossil in the collection of the Cleveland Museum of Natural History (Ohio), indicates that Dunkleosteus may have been a cannibal.

We frequently get asked “did Dunkleosteus eat sharks”? Several shark taxa have been found in the Cleveland Shale Member which also yields fossils of Dunkleosteus terrelli. For example, Cladoselache, Ctenacanthus and Stethacanthus.  It is possible that sharks formed part of the diet of a large Dunkleosteus.  Conversely, sharks such as Cladoselache probably hunted smaller placoderms and may have tackled juvenile Dunkleosteus.

Which is the Best Dunkleosteus Model?

As Dunkleosteus looks like a monster it has proved a popular choice for model making companies.  For example, CollectA, Mojo Fun, Wild Safari, Schleich and PNSO have all made a Dunkleosteus model.  Papo is currently working on a Dunkleosteus figure.

At Everything Dinosaur, we stock a range of prehistoric animal figures, including impressive marine species and ancient fish models. These replicas make excellent display pieces for collectors, prehistoric animal fans, fossil collectors and science educators.  The Mojo Fun Dunkleosteus model is popular.

The Mojo Fun Dunkleosteus model introduced in 2019.

To view the range of Mojo Fun models in stock: Mojo Fun Prehistoric Animal Models.

CollectA have produced a larger Dunkleosteus in their Deluxe range.  It measures a whopping twenty-eight centimetres in length, and it has an articulated jaw.

The CollectA 1:20 scale Dunkleosteus replica which was introduced in 2018.

CollectA Deluxe figures: CollectA Prehistoric Life Deluxe.

The PNSO Dunkleosteus Model

Furthermore, the PNSO Dunkleosteus is popular.  This figure also has an articulated jaw.  The jaw movements mimic mechanical studies that calculated how the jaw of Dunkleosteus moved.  A Zaha the Dunkleosteus PNSO figure depicts this fish as a more streamlined, pelagic predator.

A stunning model of a placoderm – the PNSO Dunkleosteus model.

PNSO models and figures: PNSO Prehistoric Animal Figures.

The variation in the Dunkleosteus figures currently manufactured reflects the different views held by scientists.  Certainly, model collectors and placoderm fans have a variety of figures to choose from.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Dunkleosteus is one of those iconic animals from the Palaeozoic.  It ruled ancient seas long before the first dinosaurs.  As such, this enigmatic monster fish is extremely popular, we get asked questions about it, and we do our best to provide helpful information.  Our fact sheet contains more information about Dunkleosteus terrelli.”

Even today, this armoured fish remains one of the most extraordinary vertebrates known to science. In a second, future article, we attempt to answer more questions about this enigmatic Devonian predator.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Accurate Prehistoric Animal Models.

New research published this week highlights the role of human interactions during the transition from hunter gathering to farming.  The study, published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS) challenges consensus.  It has turned previous ideas on prehistoric societies on their head as it highlights the role of human interactions during the shift from hunting and gathering to farming – one of the biggest changes in human history – rather than earlier ideas that focused on environmental factors.

For the vast majority of our existence, Homo sapiens has adopted a hunter-gatherer foraging lifestyle.  However, from about 12,000 years ago our species began to adopt a different lifestyle.  Communities formed, settling in one location as farming began to take over.  Scientists sometimes refer to this change as the “Agricultural Revolution”.

Views from Cova de les Cendres (Alacant, Spain). Early farmers arrived at this area through navigation. Picture credit: Oreto García-Puchol.

Picture credit: Oreto García-Puchol

The Palaeolithic and the Neolithic Transition

The “Stone Age”, the time when the most advanced tools used by humans were mainly made of stone, is divided into stages.  For example, the earliest stage of this time in human history is referred to as the Palaeolithic.  This denotes a period of time from the earliest known use of stone tools by hominins around 3.3 million years ago, down to roughly around 11,650 years ago. Palaeolithic means “Old Stone Age”.

The “Middle Stone Age” or Mesolithic followed, and this time period is associated with a decline in group hunting of megafauna in favour of a broader hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The Neolithic or “New Stone Age” marks the transition from a hunter-gatherer way of life to that of living in permanent settlements with a focus on farming.

Children learning about prehistoric societies. Schools in the UK have learning about the Stone Age and the transition to settled agriculture as part of their history curriculum.  Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Using a Mathematical Model to Plot Changes in Human Behaviour

The study involved a collaboration between researchers from the University of Bath, the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Germany, University College London and the University of Cambridge.  The team developed a new mathematical model and framework that challenges the traditional view that this major transition was driven by external factors, such as climate warming, increased rainfall, or the development of fertile river valleys.

The research team conclude that modern humans were not just passive participants in this process. They played an active and vital role in the transition. Factors such as varying population growth rates and mortality rates driven by competition between hunter-gatherers and farmers, influenced the development of farming in these regions.

The mathematical model had originally been used to study predator-prey interactions.  However, the researchers modified the framework permitting them to examine how early adopting farming communities and hunter-gatherers may have influenced each other. This study suggests that early farming societies spread through migration, competition, and cultural exchange, reshaping how hunter-gatherers lived and interacted with their environment.

A New Perspective on Prehistoric Societies

Commenting on the results, Dr Javier Rivas (Department of Economics at the University of Bath), stated

“Our study provides a new perspective on prehistoric societies. By statistically fitting our theoretical predator-prey model to observed population dynamics inferred from radiocarbon dates, we explored how population growth shaped history and uncovered interesting patterns, such as how the spread of farming, whether by land or sea, influenced interactions between different groups. More importantly, our model also highlights the role of migration and cultural mixing in the rise of farming.”

A field team excavating the floor of the Cova de les Cendres (Alacant, Spain), one of the sites included in the study. Picture credit: Oreto García-Puchol.

Picture credit: Oreto García-Puchol

The research team hope to develop this research by adding more factors into their model and evaluating it over larger regions and bigger datasets.

Dr Javier Rivas explained:

“We hope the methods we’ve developed will eventually become a standard tool for understanding how populations interacted in the past, offering fresh insight into other key moments in history, not just the shift to farming.”

The European Research Council funded this research.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the University of Bath in the compilation of this article.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Figures and Models.

Archaeologists based at the University of Bradford have been awarded £720,000 GBP ($945,000 USD) in new funds to purchase an advanced mobile laboratory.  This state-of-the-art facility can be deployed virtually anywhere in the world. The award comes from the Arts and Humanities Research Council (AHRC).  It will help to give academics the ability to investigate previously unexplored landscapes, such as wetlands and the inter-tidal zone.

This new facility could be employed to help researchers learn more about the ancient Stone Age settlements that once existed in the now submerged Doggerland.  The equipment considered for purchase includes portable seismic profiling systems and sophisticated drones able to map in three dimensions.  A remotely operated vehicle is also likely to be put at the disposal of the scientists.

Archaeologists from the University of Bradford carrying out offshore survey in Kaštela Bay, near Split, off the Dalmatian Coast of Croatia. Picture credit: University of Bradford.

Picture credit: University of Bradford

Mobile Laboratory – Part of a National Conservation Project

The research equipment funding is part of RICHeS (Research Infrastructure for Conservation and Heritage Science).  In total, about £80 million ($105 million USD) has been set aside for a national network of conservation and heritage projects.  The University of Bradford has already benefitted from similar grants.  For example, some of the funds received were used to create Virtual Bradford, the UK’s first digital twin city. Furthermore, the University has been at the forefront of a research project exploring prehistoric landscapes.

To read more about this funding: Prehistoric Landscapes Research Project Receives Funding Boost.

Commenting on the latest funding award, Dr Cathy Batt, the Principal Investigator and Head of the School of Archaeological and Forensic Sciences (University of Bradford), stated:

“RICHeS will not only transform Bradford’s present capacity, but highlights the significance of research into archaeology and heritage nationally.”

Professor Chris Gaffney MBE, Professor of Archaeological Science at the University of Bradford, added:

“This award is fantastic news, building on the long-term success in archaeological prospection at Bradford. It reflects our work on iconic landscapes such as Stonehenge and the Mesolithic environment beneath the North Sea. We are delighted that this award will stimulate and support research in new areas, particularly by students and early career researchers.”

From Land to Sea

From Land to Sea a mobile facility for surveying and prospecting is one of thirty projects to receive RICHeS funding. It will be based at the University of Bradford, and it will underpin a step-change in understanding prehistoric landscapes. The facility will combine new technology and expertise and use easily transportable equipment in a wide range of environments, both in the UK and internationally. It will let researchers survey on land, in shallow water and near-coastal areas.

An archaeologist undertaking a geophysical survey looking for early Viking settlements. Picture credit: University of Bradford.

Picture credit: University of Bradford

The mobile laboratory aims to offer flexible and portable technologies. These will allow researchers to examine and understand landscapes in terrestrial, wetland and marine environments. Users of the facility will be able to quickly react to changing conditions driven by factors including climate change or infrastructure development.

Transforming Communities

The project has lofty ambitions.  It hopes to transform the ability of researchers to answer questions about the development of early civilisations.  The mobile laboratory will also promote engagement with the broader society and impacted communities.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bradford in the compilation of this article.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.