A newly published scientific paper outlining the latest Rhamphorhynchus research has solved a mystery about pterosaur flight.  Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight.  Thanks to this new study, an evolutionary puzzle relating to how pterosaurs flew has been solved.  Controlled powered flight was achieved with the aid of a lattice-like vane on the tip of the tail of many types of early flying reptile.  The diamond-shaped vane consisted of interwoven membranes.  This prevented their long tails fluttering like flags in the wind.  These structures helped to stabilise these creatures in flight and may have aided steering.

A rhamphorhynchine pterosaur illustration. The diamond-shaped tail vane was made from interwoven membranes, and this played a key role in flight stability. Picture credit: Natalia Jagielska.

Picture credit: Natalia Jagielska

Previous research revealed that maintaining stiffness in the tail vane was crucial to enable early pterosaur’s flight.  How exactly this was achieved remained unknown. However, this new research, published in eLife, has provided fresh data on pterosaur anatomy.  This in turn, permitted this puzzle about the flight of pterosaurs to be resolved.

The study was led by palaeontologists from the University of Edinburgh.  The researchers discovered that the tail vane probably behaved like a sail on a ship.  It became tense as the wind blew through the cross-linked membranes thus allowing these reptiles to steer themselves through the sky.

An illustration of a pterosaur.  Note the diamond-shaped tail vane. Rhamphorhynchus research has solved a mystery about pterosaur flight. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Rhamphorhynchus Research

The hollow bones of pterosaurs have poor fossil preservation potential.  However, thanks to the remarkable fossils from famous Lagerstätten such as the pterosaur material from Solnhofen in Germany, scientists have numerous, early non-pterodactyloid specimens to study.  Many of the most complete and best-preserved specimens represent Rhamphorhynchus muensteri.  Some of these fossils are preserved in three-dimensions and also include traces of soft tissue such as skin and flight membranes.

Recently, Everything Dinosaur reported upon the study of a giant Rhamphorhynchus: Rhamphorhynchus and Ontogenetic Niche Partitioning.

The scientists used a sophisticated research technique called Laser Simulated Fluorescence (LSF).  Exposing fossils to this intense light causes organic tissues almost invisible to the naked eye to glow.  The researchers were able to observe the delicate internal structures of the Rhamphorhynchus tail vane.  This provided the team with fresh insights into pterosaur anatomy and evolution.

Wild Safari Dinos Rhamphorhynchus figure. A typical non-pterodactyloid pterosaur.

The image (above) shows a replica of Rhamphorhynchus.  This pterosaur model is part of the Wild Safari Prehistoric World model range.

To view this range of prehistoric animal figures: Wild Safari Prehistoric World Figures.

Universities Collaborating with Museums

The research involved scientists from the University of Edinburgh and the Chinese University of Hong Kong in collaboration with the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh and the London Natural History Museum. It was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC).

Lead author of the study Dr Natalia Jagielska a PhD graduate from the University of Edinburgh stated:

“It never ceases to astound me that, despite the passing of hundreds of millions of years, we can put skin on the bone of animals we will never see in our lifetimes.”

Thinking of a practical implication for this research, Dr Jagielska added:

“Pterosaurs were wholly unique animals with no modern equivalents, with a huge elastic membrane stretching from their ankle to the tip of the hyper-elongated fourth finger. For all we know, figuring out how pterosaur membranes worked, may inspire new aircraft technologies.”

This newly published research provides a fascinating glimpse into early pterosaur evolution.  The tail vane was a critical structure that helped these amazing creatures dominate the skies.  However, later pterosaurs had much reduced tails and lost their tail vanes.  This opens up new lines of enquiry into the evolution of the Pterosauria.

Dr Nick Fraser, (Keeper of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland), said:

“Without the researchers’ vision to apply new technology to apparently well-understood fossils, this tail vane would have remained in the dark. It is exciting to now see a critical feature of the pterosaur’s anatomy so beautifully displayed.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Edinburgh in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “New soft tissue data of pterosaur tail vane reveals sophisticated, dynamic tensioning usage and expands its evolutionary origins” by Natalia Jagielska, Thomas G Kaye, Michael B Habib, Tatsuya Hirasawa and Michael Pittman published in eLife.

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Pterosaur Models and Toys.

Newly published research demonstrates that the super-sized canines of sabre-toothed predators were “optimal” for biting into prey.  Oversized canines have evolved on several occasions within tetrapods.  Perhaps, the most famous example are the sabre-toothed cats, such as Smilodon.  There have been numerous studies into the efficiency of Smilodon teeth.  This new study, published in the journal “Current Biology”, reveals why these canines were “functionally optimal” and highly effective at puncturing prey.

The Rebor Smilodon populator 1/11th scale figure posed with its mouth open. A beautiful replica of a Sabre-toothed cat.  A newly published study (January, 2025), highlights the efficiency of the large canines for puncturing prey. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows the Rebor Smilodon populator scale model.   This model is in the “jungle” colour scheme.  The figure possesses the huge sabre-teeth associated with this big cat.  The Smilodon teeth in this figure have been beautifully crafted.

To see the range of Rebor models and figures in stock at Everything Dinosaur: Rebor Figures and Models.

Studying Smilodon Teeth and the Evolution of Sabre-teeth

The research was led by scientists at the University of Bristol in collaboration with Monash University (Melbourne, Australia).  The study demonstrates that the long, sharp blade-like teeth gave sabre-toothed predators a significant advantage when it came to capturing and subduing prey.

The findings help to explain why sabre-teeth are seen so frequently in the fossil record.  This specialist dentition has evolved independently at least five times in the Mammalia.  In 2020, Everything Dinosaur team members wrote about a research paper that explored sabre-tooth hunting methods.

To read our article about this research: Sabre-toothed Predators Evolved Different Hunting Styles.

Big-toothed predator. The skull of a Smilodon fatalis (La Brea tar pits). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

A Possible Explanation for the Extinction of Sabre-toothed Predators

The researchers propose a possible explanation for the demise of sabre-toothed predators. Their increasing specialisation may have acted as an “evolutionary ratchet”.  They became highly efficient hunters. However, with their specialised teeth, they were more vulnerable to extinction when ecosystems changed and their prey became scarce.

The team, set out to test whether sabre-tooth shape was an optimal balance between two competing needs: sharp and slender enough to effectively puncture prey and blunt and robust enough to resist breaking. Using 3D-printed steel tooth replicas in a series of biting experiments and advanced computer simulations, the researchers analysed the shape and performance of ninety-five different carnivorous mammal teeth, including twenty-five sabre-toothed species.

Functional optimality drives the repeated evolution of extreme sabre-tooth forms. Picture credit: Dr Tahlia Pollock.

Picture credit: Dr Tahlia Pollock

Lead author of the research, Dr Tahlia Pollock from the University of Bristol explained:

“Our study helps us better understand how extreme adaptations evolve – not just in sabre-toothed predators but across nature. By combining biomechanics and evolutionary theory, we can uncover how natural selection shapes animals to perform specific tasks.”

“Dirk-toothed” and “Scimitar-toothed” Predators

This research challenged a presumption about Smilodon teeth and the dentition of sabre-toothed hunters.  Previously, scientists had grouped the canines of sabre-toothed predators into two, broad categories (ecomorphs).

These two categories are:

• “Dirk-toothed” – long, straight canines.
• “Scimitar-toothed” long, canines that have a greater curvature.

Instead, this study uncovered a spectrum of sabre-tooth shapes, from the long, curved teeth of the false sabre-toothed cat Barbourofelis fricki to the straighter, more robust teeth of the machairodont Dinofelis barlowi. This supports a growing body of research suggesting a greater diversity of hunting strategies among these predators than previously thought.

The research team hope to develop their research programme by including all tooth types. Their aim will be to explore the biomechanical trade-offs that shaped the evolution of diverse dentition across the animal kingdom.

Co-author Professor Alistair Evans (Monash University) added:

“The findings not only deepen our understanding of sabre-toothed predators but also have broader implications for evolutionary biology and biomechanics. Insights from this research could even help inform bioinspired designs in engineering.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Functional optimality underpins the repeated evolution of the extreme ‘sabre-tooth’ morphology”  by Tahlia I. Pollock, William J. Deakin, Narimane Chatar, Pablo S. Milla Carmona, Douglass S. Rovinsky, Olga Panagiotopoulou, William M.G. Parker, Justin W. Adams, David P. Hocking, Philip C. J. Donoghue, Emily J. Rayfield and Alistair R. Evans published in Current Biology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists have described in detail a Rhamphorhynchus fossil from the famous Solnhofen deposits of Germany.  Most Solnhofen pterosaur fossils are pancaked, but specimen number NHMUK PV OR 37002 has been preserved in three dimensions.  This has permitted the researchers to assess how Rhamphorhynchus changed as it grew.  The fossil represents an extremely large individual. It had an estimated wingspan of approximately 1.8 metres.  When this fossil was studied over a hundred years ago, it was thought to represent a new species.  It was named Rhamphorhynchus longiceps (Woodward, 1902). However, the fossil material is now thought to represent an extremely mature Rhamphorhynchus muensteri.

The Largest Rhamphorhynchus Known to Science

The fossil material represents the largest known specimen of Rhamphorhynchus. It is exceptionally important due to the completeness of the specimen and its excellent state of preservation. In addition, as it represents the remains of a large, mature adult it can help palaeontologists to gain a better understanding of the growth of non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs, especially at upper sizes.

Furthermore, the specimen exhibits unusually flattened teeth. This suggests a change in diet for these flying reptiles as they matured.

Specimen NHMUK PV OR 37002 represents an exceptionally large and mature adult Rhamphorhynchus muensteri from the Eichstätt locality of Solnhofen. Counterplates and separate plate containing caudal series attached to the main plate are outlined in red. cdv, caudal vertebrae on separate plate and counterplate attached to main plate; hu, humerus; lwpx1, left wing phalanx 1; lwpx2, left wing phalanx 2; lwpx3, left wing phalanx 3 on counterplate; lwpx4, left wing phalanx 4 on counterplate; olwpx2, outline of left wing phalanx 2 on counterplate; olwpx3, outline of left wing phalanx 3; olwpx4, outline of left wing phalanx 4; orwpx3, outline of right wing phalanx 3; orwpx4, outline of right wing phalanx 4; orpes, outline of right pes; rad/uln, radius and ulna; rpes, right pes on counterplate; rwpx2, right wing phalanx 2; rwpx4, right wing phalanx 4 on counterplate. Note scale is 5 cm. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Studying the Rhamphorhynchus muensteri Specimen

Rhamphorhynchus is one of the most extensively studied pterosaurs.  There are over a hundred specimens in museum collections.  Most of these were sourced from the remarkable Solnhofen deposits in the German state of Bavaria. The vast majority of these specimens represent juveniles and even those fossils thought to represent adults typically have a wingspan of no more than a metre. NHMUK PV OR 37002 represents a giant rhamphorhynchine. It is also amongst the largest non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs known, and certainly the most complete specimen of an animal in excess of 1.5 m in wingspan. This Rhamphorhynchus fossil helps support the theory that some pterosaur taxa in the Jurassic were capable of reaching large sizes.

Moreover, this specimen displays anatomical differences not observed in smaller individuals, providing insights into the late-stage development of this genus.

Size comparison of different Rhamphorhynchus muensteri specimens: (anti-clockwise from top left) A – the smallest known BMMS A3 (21 mm skull length), a generalised ‘typical adult’ specimen C (122 mm skull length), D the second largest known GPIT RE/7321 (150 mm skull length) and B, the largest known NHMUK PV OR 37002 (201 mm skull length). Note scale is 1 metre. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Ontogenetic Niche Partitioning

The study has been published in the open-access journal “PeerJ”.  The researchers identified several changes in the anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus as it grew and matured. For example, analysis of the skull demonstrated a significant reduction in the size of the eye socket and an increase in the size of the temporal fenestra.  In addition, it was noted that NHMUK PV OR 37002 had flattened teeth, very different from the needle-like teeth found in juveniles.

Skulls of specimens of Rhamphorhynchus muensteri at different sizes. Top to bottom: (A) BSPG 1889 XI 1 (‘Exemplar 7’, skull length 35 mm per Wellnhofer, 1975), scale bar 25 mm; (B) YPM VP 1778 (‘Exemplar 33’ of Wellnhofer, skull length 90 mm, measured by SNM using ImageJ), scale bar 35 mm; (C) GPIT RE/7321 (‘Exemplar 81’, skull length 150 mm per Wellnhofer, 1975, illustration mirrored and partially adapted from Wellnhofer, 1975), scale bar 50 mm; (D) NHMUK PV OR 37002, skull length 201 mm. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

These characteristics illustrate a developmental transition from smaller to larger Rhamphorhynchus specimens and align with similar traits found in other large rhamphorhynchines, indicating a consistent pattern in their growth.

This would also then point to ontogenetic niche partitioning with adults and juveniles targeting different prey items. Ontogenetic niche partitioning refers to the process by which individuals of the same species or closely related species exploit different resources or habitats at different stages of their development (ontogeny).  The authors of the paper propose a dietary shift for Rhamphorhynchus as it grew and matured.  Rhamphorhynchus juveniles may have been mostly insectivorous.  As these pterosaurs grew, they become piscivorous.  The largest individuals may have shifted to other prey, or to different prey types.

Are Modern Gulls an Analogue?

Rhamphorhynchines may have moved inland as they grew and matured. Whilst still tied to water bodies, they may have become more generalist feeders.  A modern-day analogue could be gulls (Laridae).  Many types of gull prefer marine or at least aquatic systems but are capable of foraging successfully in more terrestrial systems.  If the biggest rhamphorhynchines lived inland, this might explain their absence from the fossil record.  All things being equal, a pterosaur in a marine environment probably has a great fossil preservation potential than for example, a flying reptile that lived on an inland plain.

Skull of Rhamphorhynchus muensteri NHMUK PV OR 37002 in near lateral view showing the 3D nature of the specimen (A) and restoration of the cranium and mandible in right lateral view (B). Preserved bone and teeth are in white, obscured or reconstructed portions are in grey. Note the skull has no visible sutures indicating a fully mature, adult animal. Scale is 5 cm. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid and University College London.

Large Non-pterodactyloid Pterosaurs of the Jurassic

With a wingspan estimated at around 1.8 metres, the pterosaur fossil at the centre of this new research represents one of the largest non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs of the Jurassic.  Pterodactyloids are thought to have evolved in the Jurassic and this suborder includes the biggest flying vertebrates of all time.  For example, the Azhdarchidae, the Ornithocheiridae and Late Cretaceous giants such as Pteranodon longiceps.

In the summer of 2024, we wrote an article about a pterosaur humerus found in Oxfordshire that suggested a Jurassic pterodactyloid with a wingspan in excess of three metres.

To read this article: A Giant Oxfordshire Pterosaur.

Rhamphorhynchus is a member of a more basal group of pterosaurs, although the phylogeny of the Pterosauria remains controversial.  Although, non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs did not reach the enormous size of some later pterosaurs, there is some evidence to indicate that some taxa may have had a wingspan in excess of one and a half metres.  For example, when the rhamphorhynchid Dearc sgiathanach was described in 2022 (Jagielska et al), its wingspan was thought to be greater than two metres. However, the size of D. sgiathanach remains uncertain.

A scale drawing of the large Jurassic pterosaur Dearc sgiathanach commissioned by Everything Dinosaur for a Dearc fact sheet. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The image above shows a scale drawing of the Middle Jurassic rhamphorhynchine Dearc sgiathanach, although the size of this pterosaur remains uncertain.  The drawing was commissioned for a fact sheet that accompanied sales of the CollectA Deluxe Dearc figure.

To view the range of CollectA Deluxe prehistoric animal models: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Life Models.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of Dr David Hone (Queen Mary University of London) in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A giant specimen of Rhamphorhynchus muensteri and comments on the ontogeny of rhamphorhynchines” by David W. E. Hone and Skye N. McDavid published in PeerJ.