Today, May the 23rd is World Turtle Day! A time to celebrate these amazing reptiles and to remember lost species such as the Pinta Island tortoise “Lonesome George”.  Turtles, tortoises and terrapins belong to the order Testudines.  These are ancient creatures with an extensive fossil record.  Their evolutionary origins and the development of the carapace and plastron has puzzled palaeontologists.

Remembering the Pinta Island Tortoise “Lonesome George”

One of these creatures that we recall is “Lonesome George”, the last Pinta Island giant tortoise.  He became a symbol of conservation efforts.  Sadly, this giant tortoise died in 2012.  Conservation efforts continue with global programmes inspired by the last of his species. His story reminds us of the importance of protecting endangered species.

Everything Dinosaur’s blog post from 2012 reflecting on the loss of “Lonesome George”: Reflecting on the Passing of “Lonesome George”.

The Rebor 1:6 scale Pinta Island tortoise “Lonesome George” in lateral view. The model measures 30 cm long and stands 20 cm high. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows a 1:6 scale model of the Pinta Island giant tortoise known as “Lonesome George”.  This beautiful model was introduced in 2023 by Rebor.

To view the Rebor range of models: Rebor Figures.

Recently, ideas about the evolution of these reptiles have been revised.  In addition, some researchers have suggested that the carapace and the plastron evolved not for protection but developed to assist with burrowing and living underground.

Turtle evolution complicated by new fossil discovery: Turtle Evolution Revised by New Study.

To read an article about the evolution of the carapace: Did the Turtle Shell Evolve to Assist with Burrowing?

World Turtle Day

Turtles, tortoises and terrapins play vital roles in our ecosystems. Sadly, many taxa are under threat with numerous species facing extinction.  World Turtle Day was first celebrated at the turn of the century.  It was created to highlight these animals and the need to protect and conserve species.  Furthermore, it provides us with an opportunity to celebrate and commemorate those dedicated conservationists that work so hard to protect habitats.

Take a moment today to appreciate tortoises, turtles and their relatives. Together, we can make a difference. Happy World Turtle Day!

The Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models and Figures.

The dry weather might be proving difficult for farmers and much of the country might need rain, but the warm weather attracted an unusual visitor to the office pond.  A Broad-bodied chaser dragonfly was observed resting on foliage by the pond’s edge.  Whilst this squat dragonfly might be relatively common in England, this is the first time we have recorded this species at this location.

It was difficult to take a photograph.  The insect was not keen on the plethora of damselflies that were around the rapidly dwindling water source.  We cannot remember the water level being so low at this time of year. However, it still is a haven for wildlife attracting all sorts of insects and the occasional bird that descends for a drink or a bath.

We will continue to monitor the water levels in the pond, and we will try and top it up with rainwater, should we indeed have any rain to speak off.

A welcome visitor a Broad-bodied chaser (Libellula depressa) dragonfly resting on an old fern frond over the office pond. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Small ponds play a vital role in supporting wildlife by providing essential habitats for a variety of species. The office pond has attracted dragonflies, water beetles, pond skaters, frogs and birds. These aquatic environments serve as breeding grounds and shelter for many small animals. They foster biodiversity and enhance the local ecosystem’s health.

A Broad-bodied Chaser

The golden-brown abdomen suggests that this is either a female or an immature male. This dragonfly (Libellula depressa) is common throughout England and Wales but rarer in northern England. It can be seen from April and throughout the summer months. Dragonflies and their ancestors are ancient creatures.  Their fossil record goes back to the Carboniferous.

The ancestors of modern dragonflies evolved during the Late Carboniferous. Some of these Carboniferous insects were giants. For example, Meganeuropsis permiana known from the Early Permian had a wingspan in excess of seventy centimetres.

Rebor added a dragonfly figure as an accessory to the company’s Compsognathus model that was introduced in 2016.

Rebor Compsognathus – Sentry.  This figure, introduced in 2016 included a dragonfly model as an accessory.

To view the range of Rebor models and figures in stock: Rebor Models and Figures.

Commenting on the dragonfly visitor, Mike from Everything Dinosaur stated:

“We do our best to encourage wildlife to the office pond.  We have planted many more flowers to attract insects.  In addition, we have planted more cover close to the pond to provide hiding places and shelter for small animals.”

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models and Toys.

The frogspawn season is underway.  It is pleasing to note that there are lots of Common frogs (Rana temporaria) in the office pond.  We have counted six batches of frogspawn as of yesterday afternoon.  At least two pairs are in amplexus. Amplexus describes a form of mating behaviour exhibited by some animals that externally fertilise eggs. It is common in amphibians. The male straddles the female and grasps her with his front legs. The male Common frog develops pads on its forelimbs which help to secure the male to the female. The male has to hold on tight as numerous other males will try and dislodge them.  A pair of frogs can remain in amplexus for several hours.

Several frogs (Rana temporaria) in the office pond. Six batches of frogspawn have been laid to date. At least two pairs are in amplexus, so perhaps more eggs will be laid over the next 24-hours or so. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Team members from Everything Dinosaur wanted to take some photographs.  However, they did not want to disturb the frogs.

Mike commented:

“We found a pair of frogs in amplexus close to the pond.  We carefully moved them and placed them in the water.  We have tried to keep out of the way and not disturb the frogs.  Hopefully, we will have more frogspawn soon. However, I doubt whether we will end up with as many batches as we did last year.  In 2024, we recorded thirteen batches of frogspawn.”

The Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Models and Toys.

Frogspawn spotted in the Everything Dinosaur office pond. After numerous cold nights, the frogs (Rana temporaria) have begun to spawn.  The first three batches of frogspawn were spotted this morning (7th March).  Last year, (2024) the first observation of frogspawn in the office pond occurred on the 18th of February.  This was the earliest date that it had been recorded since we began gathering this information.  We have noticed a marked trend in frogs spawning earlier.  However, the cold nights with freezing temperatures delayed spawning this year.

Frogspawn in the office pond spotted on the morning of the 7th of March. The cold weather had delayed spawning this year. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

For the article on the earliest frogspawn recorded: Frogspawn Discovered in the Office Pond.

Frogspawn Spotted

At least ten frogs have been counted.  If you look carefully at the picture above, you might be able to see a frog in the lower half of the picture.  We took great care not to disturb the animals as we photographed the frogspawn.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“We had been worried.  Some work undertaken in the area last summer could have disturbed the frogs.  However, it is pleasing to see frogspawn once again in the office pond.  Ponds like this one are a haven for wildlife and we do what we can to help nature.”

He explained that as part of the work undertaken last year Everything Dinosaur has arranged to plant some insect-friendly plants close to the pond.

Mike stated:

“We wanted to do more to attract honeybees and other important insects.  Some of these plants have begun flowering and their nectar has already attracted numerous honey and bumble bees.”

By this time last year, more than a dozen batches of frogspawn had been recorded.  The frogs have some catching up to do.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys.

Newly published research led by scientists at the University of Bristol has shed light on the remarkable evolution of the jaws of snakes and lizards.  These animals are part of the order Squamata which in turn, is part of the Superorder Lepidosauria. The Lepidosauria includes the Squamata and also the Rhynchocephalia. The Rhynchocephalia is today, only represented by one living species the Tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). However, the fossil record demonstrates that the Rhynchocephalia were once extremely widespread and diverse.

The study focused on the evolution of remarkably varied jaw shapes within the Lepidosauria which drove their extraordinary success.  For example, the snakes and lizards represent the most diverse and speciose of all tetrapods.  Around twelve thousand species have been described.

A team of evolutionary biologists led the research, and it provides a new understanding of the intricate factors influencing the evolution of lower jaw morphology in the lepidosaurs.  The paper has been published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

An image of an anole (a species of “false chameleon”) crushing a snail with its jaws. Picture credit: Professor Anthony Herrel (co-author in the study).

Picture credit: Anthony Herrel (co-author of the study)

To read a related blog post about the discovery of a remarkable fossil in Germany that highlights the evolutionary links between the Squamata and the Rhynchocephalia: Tiny Fossil Sheds Light on Reptile Evolution.

The Jaw Shape of Snakes and Lizards

The scientists discovered that jaw shape evolution in lepidosaurs is influenced by a complex interplay of factors beyond ecology, including phylogeny (evolutionary relatedness) and allometry (the scaling of shape with size). The study demonstrated that at least in terms of jaw shape, snakes are outliers. Snakes exhibit a unique jaw morphology.  This is most likely due to their highly flexible skulls and their ability swallow prey many times larger than the width of their head.

Corresponding author for the study, Dr Antonio Ballell Mayoral (School of Earth Sciences at the University of Bristol), commented:

“Interestingly, we found that jaw shape evolves particularly fast in ecologically specialised groups, such as in burrowing and aquatic species, and in herbivorous lizards, suggesting that evolutionary innovation in the lower jaw was key to achieve these unique ecologies. Our study shows how lizards and snakes evolved their disparate jaw shapes which adapted to their wide range of ecologies, diets, and habitats, driving their extraordinary diversity.”

Diagram showing rates of evolution of lower jaw shape across the ‘family tree’ of lepidosaurs. Picture credit: Dr Antonio Ballell Mayoral and colleagues.

Picture credit: Dr Antonio Ballell Mayoral and colleagues

The Lower Jaw is a Key Element in Ecological Adaptation

This research work underlines the critical role of morphological innovation in promoting the diversification of extremely biodiverse groups like the lepidosaurs.  The lower jaw is a vital component of the vertebrate feeding apparatus, the researchers conclude it is a key element in driving ecological experimentation and adaptation.

As for any future research, the scientists would like to examine the morphology of the entire lepidosaur skull.

Dr Ballell Mayoral explained:

“Lower jaws are important, but they work together with the jaw closing muscles to support essential functions like feeding and defence. We are exploring the relationship between skull shape and the arrangement of the jaw closing musculature through evolution, and how it has impacted the diversification of feeding mechanics and habits.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Ecological drivers of jaw morphological evolution in lepidosaurs” by Antonio Ballell, Hugo Dutel, Matteo Fabbri, Elizabeth Martin-Silverstone, Aleksandra Kersley, Chrissy L. Hammond, Anthony Herrel and Emily J. Rayfield published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys and Models.

Scientists have discovered new species of ghost shark that lives exclusively in the deep waters of Australia and New Zealand. It is a type of Australasian Narrow-nosed Spookfish and has been named Harriotta avia.  The new fish species has been scientifically described by Dr Brit Finucci of New Zealand’s National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research (NIWA).

It was previously thought to be part of a single globally distributed species, until research revealed it is genetically and morphologically different from other ghost fish.

Harriotta avia – A New Species of Ghost Shark

Dr Finucci named the new species in memory of her grandmother.

Dr Finucci explained:

“Avia means grandmother in Latin; I wanted to give this nod to her because she proudly supported me through my career as a scientist. Chimaeras are also rather ancient relatives – the grandmas and grandpas – of fish and I thought the name was well suited.”

A new species of ghost fish has been described. Named Harriotta avia it lives exclusively in the deep waters of Australia and New Zealand. Picture credit: NIWA.

Picture credit: NIWA

An Ancient Order of Cartilaginous Fish

Chimaeriformes certainly are an ancient order of cartilaginous fish (Chondrichthyes).  They probably evolved in the Devonian. Most extant species are found at depths greater than two hundred metres, and they live on the seafloor.  Harriotta avia feeds on crustaceans, however in the Palaeozoic these types of fish evolved to fill a variety of niches.  For example, in 2023, research was published that identified suction feeding in Carboniferous Chimaeriformes.

To read about this research: Carboniferous Chimaeras were Suction Feeders.

Most fossil and extant chimaeras are small, very few specimens exceed one metre in length. However, other prehistoric, cartilaginous fish that were distantly related to the newly described H. avia grew much larger. For example, the Permian genus Helicoprion with its bizarre tooth-whorl jaw, has been estimated to have grown to around eight metres in length.

PNSO Haylee the Helicoprion replica. The stunning emerald eye on the model is reminiscent of the eye of a chimaera such as the deep-water Rabbit Fish (Chimaera monstrosa) to which Helicoprion is distantly related.

The picture above shows a model of the prehistoric fish Helicoprion.  This Permian predator is distantly related to extant ghost sharks.  The Helicoprion model is from the mid-size model range produced by PNSO.

To view the PNSO models and figures in stock: PNSO Models and Figures.

Chimaeriformes

Ghost sharks (Chimaeriformes) are a group of cartilaginous fish closely related to rays and sharks. These mysterious creatures are also known as rabbitfish, ratfish and elephant fish.

They have a smooth skin, free of scales.  Most feed on crustaceans such as shrimp and molluscs with their distinctive beak-like teeth.

Dr Finucci added:

“Harriotta avia is unique due to its elongated, narrow and depressed snout; long, slender trunk; large eyes; and very long, broad pectoral fins. It is a lovely chocolate brown colour.”

Ghost sharks are mainly found in the depths of the ocean.  Some are thought to live at depths of up to 2,600 metres.  This makes them hard to monitor and study.  Marine biologists know very little about their habits, reproduction or their conservation status.

A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“This is an exciting development.  It is likely that the deep ocean holds many more secrets.”

The specimens were collected in the Chatham Rise off New Zealand’s coast during research surveys for Fisheries New Zealand.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research in the compilation of this article.

A team of international scientists have been collaborating on a genetic study of extant bird species.  This programme sets out to provide a better understanding of the phylogeny of Aves.  It has been operating for a decade and is split into four phases.  A report outlining the conclusions of phase two was published in the spring (2024).  This immense study of bird genomes has highlighted some important characteristics of bird evolution.  For example, it has confirmed the phylogeny of the extinct phorusrhacids within the Aves order.

The complex nature of avian evolutionary relationships has been highlighted by this research.  The study, conducted by the Bird 10,000 Genomes (B10K) Consortium has enabled a comprehensive bird family tree to be constructed.  This research provides strong support for the hypothesis that very few lineages of modern birds existed before the K-Pg extinction event.

Complexity of bird evolution revealed by family-level genomes. The chart displays bird relationships and when groups diverged away from each other in deep geological time. Picture credit: Josefin Stiller, with paintings of birds by Jon Fjeldså.

Picture credit: Josefin Stiller and paintings of birds by Jon Fjeldså.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s blog post about this research: New Analysis Re-Writes Bird Evolution.

The Relationship Between Phorusrhacids and Extant Flightless Birds

One of the conclusions of the study is that the Cariamiformes order is far removed genetically from the Palaeognathae.  This infraclass of birds (Palaeognathae) consists of the flightless ratites and one lineage of volant birds (Tinamous).  Life reconstructions of extinct members of the phorusrhacid family vary.  For example, Phorusrhacos longissimus, a phorusrhacid known from the Miocene, has been depicted with plumage like its living relative the Seriema, whilst other depictions give it a bristle-like integumentary covering reminiscent of an Emu or a Cassowary which are both ratites.

For instance, the CollectA Deluxe Kelenken figure, gives this phorusrhacid a coat of bristle-like feathers on the neck and the body.  The feathers on this scale model resemble those of an Emu or a Cassowary.

The CollectA Deluxe Kelenken figure has an integumentary covering on the neck and body which resembles the bristle-like feathers of a ratite such as a Cassowary. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit; Everything Dinosaur

To view the CollectA Deluxe range of figures in stock: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Animal Models.

The complexity of avian evolution is being revealed by a genetic analysis at the species level. Cariamiformes such as the “terror birds” Phorusrhacos and Kelenken are far removed from the ratites. Members of the Phorusrhacidae may not have had bristle-like feathers as found on Emus and their relatives but plumage reminiscent of more closely related birds such as falcons and parrots.  Perhaps model makers will utilise some of the findings from this extensive research programme in their prehistoric bird figures.

Convergent Evolution

Evolving into large flightless birds, descended from a common ancestor is a trait shared by both the ratites and the phorusrhacids.  However, this is not because these two types of bird are closely related.  It is more likely to represent an example of convergent evolution.  From a model making perspective, it is difficult to find extant animal references.  After all, nothing like the “terror birds” exists today (fortunately).

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Figures.

Over the weekend, we took advantage of the warm autumn weather to clean and tidy up the office pond.  To our surprise we discovered a single tadpole.  This September tadpole had not metamorphosed into a frog but had remained in its juvenile state.  We have seen this phenomenon before, and there could be several reasons for this particular tadpole not developing.  For example, it could have a genetic abnormality that prevents this tadpole from changing.  It could remain a tadpole for the remainder of its life.

A tadpole spotted in the office pond on a warm September day (2024).  It can be seen in the bottom left corner of the image. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur,

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

A September Tadpole

The cool and wet weather in June could have prevented the tadpole from developing properly.  Tadpoles feed on algae, perhaps there was a shortage of food or too much competition and this tadpole, plus others we did not spot, have had their growth stunted.

We certainly had a lot of frogspawn in the office pond this year.  In total we counted thirteen batches of spawn.  The frogspawn is being laid earlier in the year.  For example, this year’s spawning started in the middle of February.

To read our blog post about the first frogspawn spotted this year: Frogspawn Spotted in the Office Pond (2024).

Whilst the vast majority of the tadpoles turn into frogs in a single year, some seem to take longer. This might be a strategy to ensure more of the progeny survive.  For example, the conditions in the summer might not be ideal for the survival of the froglets as they emerge from the water.  So, if some of the tadpoles remain in the pond until the following spring, the conditions might have improved thus permitting them a greater chance of survival.

At least one tadpole from the office pond is likely to overwinter. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

We have taken out some of the weed but left plenty of oxygenating plants.  We have tidied up the waterlilies too.

Waterlilies belong to the family Nymphaeaceae.  These plants have a fossil record dating back to the Cretaceous.

We shall keep checking on the tadpole and the other pond life over the autumn and winter months.

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys and Gifts.

One of the most enigmatic members of the Aves is the Phorusrhacos “terror bird”.  Phorusrhacos (P. longissimus) was scientifically described in 1887 by the Argentinian palaeontologist Florentino Ameghino. The genus name is pronounced four-rus-rak-cus.

Recently, Everything Dinosaur published an article summarising the results of the latest phase in the Bird 10,000 Genomes (B10K) project. This programme involves the most extensive and ambitious research into the genetics of the Aves. Phase two of the study revealed some fascinating insights into the phylogeny of our feathered friends.  For example, it was confirmed that owls are a sister lineage to the Accipitriformes.  Accipitriformes consist of most of the diurnal birds of prey.  Birds such as hawks, eagles, kites and buzzards.

Intriguingly, falcons although similar to other birds of prey, are not Accipitriformes.  Falcons are not closely related to other birds of prey. They are grouped into a clade that also contains the songbirds, parrots and the enigmatic Cariamiformes. The clade is known as the Australaves.  Giant, predatory flightless birds such as the Phorusrhacos “terror bird” are members of the Cariamiformes order.

This means that falcons are related to “Terror Birds”…

A close-up view of a Phorusrhacos terror bird. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

To read Everything Dinosaur’s article about the latest findings from the Bird 10,000 Genomes (B10K) Consortium: New Analysis Re-Writes Bird Evolution.

The Phorusrhacos “Terror Bird”

The holotype material (MLP 20-122) consists of an incomplete mandible. Ameghino mistakenly believed that these fossils represented a toothless mammal. The avian nature of Phorusrhacos was first proposed in 1891, based on a comparison with fossil remains of a related species Patagornis marshi which had just been described (Moreno and Mercerat).  These enigmatic creatures, with their huge skulls and powerful beaks have inspired numerous artists.  Both Charles R. Knight and Zdeněk Burian produced illustrations of Phorusrhacos.

Stunning “terror bird” artwork by Burian. A pair of Phorusrhacos squabble over a recent kill.

Picture credit: Zdeněk Burian

The phorusrhacids were the dominant terrestrial predators on the isolated continent of South America for millions of years. Some phorusrhacids dispersed into Central America and the southern United States during the Great American Biotic Interchange when North America became united with South America in the Pliocene.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“These large, cursorial hunters were the apex predators in many Cenozoic ecosystems.  There is nothing like them alive today.  The only extant members of the Cariamiformes are the two species of Seriema, both of which are native to South America just like the giant Phorusrhacos longissimus.  It is perhaps because there is nothing like these creatures living today that Phorusrhacos evokes a fierce majesty of a lost world.”

The “terror birds” were the last apex theropod dinosaur predators.  With their passing, most of the top predatory niches in terrestrial food webs were the domain of the Mammalia.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models and Figures.

Visiting the Liverpool World Museum is always a delight. Amongst the exhibits there is a small section that highlights the evolution of tetrapods. There is a stunning coelacanth specimen on display. Coelacanths are sometimes referred to as “living fossils”. They are lobed-finned fishes (Sarcopterygii) in the class Actinistia. Their fossil record dates back to the Devonian. The last of their kind was thought to have become extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. That was, until December 1938, when a coelacanth was caught by a fisherman off the east coast of South Africa close to the Chalumna River estuary.

A stunning coelacanth specimen on display at Liverpool World Museum. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The Significance of the Coelacanth Specimen

The coelacanth display is part of a larger exhibit that highlights the evolutionary transition of vertebrates onto the land. As these fish have fleshy, lobe-like fins it had been thought that the coelacanth might be the youngest diverging non-tetrapod sarcopterygian. However, the genome of this fish was sequenced in 2013, and it was discovered that lungfish are more closely related to tetrapods.

To read about the sequencing of the coelacanth genome: The Coelacanth Gets Its Genome Unravelled.

A scale drawing of a coelacanth (Latimeria). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Liverpool World Museum is a great place to visit. If you go, please take a look at the coelacanth display. It is a wonderful way to connect with a group of creatures that have been around since the Devonian.

Several models of coelacanths have been produced.  For example, both the Mojo Fun and Safari Ltd ranges include coelacanth figures.

For prehistoric animal models visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.