We have frogspawn in the office pond. Today, a clump of frogspawn was observed in a shallow area of the office pond. Frogs had been spotted in the pond a few days ago, it seems that the spawning season has started. This is the earliest date in the year that we have recorded frogspawn. Last year (2023), the first frogspawn was recorded on the 28th of February. This was the first time that the frogs have spawned in February. This year, the frogs have begun spawning even earlier.
Frogspawn in the office pond. Today, 18th February a batch of frogspawn was observed in the office pond. This is the earliest recorded spawning. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Common Frogs (Rana temporaria)
The spawn was produced by Common frogs (Rana temporaria). Observations by team members suggest that there were four frogs in the pond. The pond has been created to attract wildlife and frogs have laid their eggs in the pond each spring since 2008. For many years the frogs spawned around the third week of March. However, there is a distinct trend for recording spawning much earlier in the year.
Could this be a consequence of global warming and climate change?
It has certainly been very mild over the last week or two. Temperatures of 13-14 degrees Celsius have been recorded in the northwest of England. The average temperature for February in the Manchester area of England would normally be expected to be around 4-7 degrees Celsius.
A close-up view of the frogspawn laid early in the morning of 18th February.Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Frogspawn Laid in a Shallow Part of the Pond
The frogs have laid their eggs in a shallow part of the pond. Eggs are not normally laid in this part of the office pond. Folklore suggests that if frogs lay in the shallows, then the next few weeks will be mild but wet. We will continue to observe the pond to see if more frogs arrive and more spawn is produced.
Yesterday, Everything Dinosaur team members posted up an article that provided information on the evolutionary history of burrowing vertebrates. The first vertebrates to dig burrows were probably lungfish. These animals were similar to extant lungfish, animals such as Neoceratodus forsteri, the Australian lungfish. This taxon is also referred to as the Queensland lungfish.
Ironically, it is thought that this species of lungfish does not enter a dormant state (aestivation), by producing a mucous cocoon and burying itself in mud. Neoceratodus forsteri inhabits slow-moving rivers and reservoirs, primarily in south-eastern Queensland. In contrast, the African genus Protopterus does dig burrows. Protopterus is distantly related to the Australian lungfish. During the dry season when lakes tend to dry up, this fish excavates a burrow and buries itself in the mud. It enters a state of dormancy (aestivation), enabling it to survive whilst it waits for the water to return. During aestivation Protopterus is able to reduce its metabolism to 1/60th of its active state.
A stuffed specimen of an Australian lungfish (Neoceratodus forsteri) on display at the London Natural History Museum. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
A team of researchers, including scientists from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin examined the origins and early evolution of vertebrate burrowing behaviour. Their paper was published in Earth-Science Reviews.
The scientific paper comprises a short overview of convergent morphological and behavioural adaptations seen in modern fossorial taxa. The researchers also document the diversity of extant vertebrate burrows. In addition, the team reviews the fossil record of inferred vertebrate burrows and fossorial vertebrates from the Devonian to the Triassic. Results highlight a probable Devonian earliest occurrence of fossoriality in continental vertebrates (Dipnoi – lungfishes).
The earliest lungfish taxa were mostly marine animals. However, after the Carboniferous, lung fish fossils are confined to deposits laid down in freshwater environments.
The Australian lungfish specimen at the London Natural History Museum is displayed next to a model of a Protopterus burrow. This can confuse visitors, it was stated earlier in this article that not all lungfish exhibit this burrowing behaviour.
In 2020, CollectA introduced a Horseshoe crab model. These animals are members of the Limulidae family. This model of an ancient invertebrate is extremely detailed. The Horseshoe crab lineage has a fossil record that dates back to the Ordovician. Team members were asked to take some photographs of the figure for a palaeontology related project.
CollectA Horseshoe crab in lateral view. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
The CollectA Horseshoe Crab Model
The model is very detailed, and the paint scheme makes this replica look extremely realistic. However, it is on the underside where the care and dedication of the design team really shows.
The CollectA Horseshoe crab model in ventral view (view of the underside). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
The small chelicerae (modified claws) are bent towards the mouth. These appendages pass food into the mouth. The walking legs show the bifurcated end segments, and the rear “pusher” leg is clearly visible. The design team have included a vent at the base of the long, pointed telson.
An Atlantic Horseshoe crab in ventral view (view of the underside). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
The picture (above) shows an Atlantic Horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) in ventral view. It is on display at the London Natural History Museum.
CollectA Age of Dinosaurs Popular Size Horseshoe crab figure. The model measures 15 centimetres in length and the width of the carapace is 7.7 cm approximately.
In horseshoe crabs, the head and thorax are fused. This structure is called the prosoma. It is also sometimes referred to as the cephalothorax. The cephalothorax is covered in a hard, protective carapace.
Team members at Everything Dinosaur photographed a spectacular Nile crocodile skeleton. The skeleton is on display at the London Natural History Museum. Recently, Everything Dinosaur wrote a short blog post about the reptile exhibit at the Museum.
The skeleton of a Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) on display at the London Natural History Museum. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
As male Nile crocodiles tend to be much bigger than the females, we suspect the skeleton represents a male. The Nile crocodile skeleton could have come from a crocodile farm. Perhaps the skeleton came from a zoo. It is part of an exhibit that looks at extant reptiles. The exhibit also includes a large, stuffed Nile crocodile specimen.
A stuffed Nile crocodile on display. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur stated:
“This large exhibit permits visitors to get a really good look at the skeleton of a large crocodile. The exhibit includes examples of crocodile stomach contents. The skeleton is impressive, although this reptile is dwarfed by the specimens in the Dinosaurs Gallery.”
Team members at Everything Dinosaur photographed a stunning Nile crocodile specimen on display at the London Natural History Museum. The Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus) is the largest freshwater predator in Africa. Males can grow up to six metres in length and weigh more than a tonne. As such, the Nile crocodile can be considered as the second-biggest extant reptile. Only the Estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is larger.
The head of a stuffed crocodile specimen (Nile crocodile) on display at the London Natural History Museum. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
The stuffed crocodile specimen measures more than three metres in length. It is part of an exhibit that highlights the diversity of vertebrates found on Earth today. It is exhibited alongside a Crocodylus niloticus skeleton.
The Nile Crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus)
Phylogenetic analysis has revealed that this African crocodile is more closely related to American crocodiles such as the Orinoco crocodile and the Cuban crocodile than it is to other African crocodile species. Several subspecies of Crocodylus niloticus have been proposed.
A model of a crocodile with an articulated lower jaw. The model is based on the African crocodile species Crocodylus niloticus.
The picture (above) features the Mojo Fun crocodile figure. This detailed model has an articulated jaw.
To view the range of Mojo Fun figures available from Everything Dinosaur: Mojo Fun Models.
A Man-eater
These crocodiles are estimated to kill many hundreds of people each year. The total number of attacks on humans is unknown as many attacks are unreported. Nile crocodiles tend to be much more aggressive than many other crocodilians. However, these crocodiles live in close proximity to human populations throughout most of their range. As contact is more frequent, this may explain why the number of Nile crocodile attacks remains disproportionately high. Most attacks on humans are made by crocodiles that exceed three metres in length. However, smaller crocodiles, animals less than two metres in length are capable of overpowering children.
A number of programmes are in place to help reduce the threat of crocodile attacks, by providing alternative access to water through the construction of wells and safe water gathering places. It is hoped that educating local fishermen about crocodile behaviour can reduce the risk of attack.
Commenting on the museum crocodile exhibit a spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur stated:
“The exhibit looks at the evolutionary history of vertebrates. The reptile section is particularly interesting with many stuffed specimens on display.”
The new Rebor GNG alligator models are in stock at Everything Dinosaur. Both figures are available, the “Downpour” and the “Basking” colour schemes. The pair of alligator figures are the latest editions to the Rebor GrabNGo range.
Each Rebor GNG figure measures 62 cm long. The figures are approximately 10.5 cm high and around 10 cm wide across the back.
Rebor GNG Alligator Models
Both figures are the same sculpt, just the colouration depicted by the subtle painting schemes is different. Each figure is supplied in two parts. Some assembly is required, the tail has to be fitted into the body. When assembled the alligator figure measures approximately 62 cm long. The highest point of the back is around 10.5 cm off the ground. Across the torso, the impressive alligator model is about 10 cm wide.
The new Rebor GrabNGo alligators require some assembly. The tail and body sections have to be heated to permit insertion. The stiff plastic of the models does represent a challenge, we recommend an adult takes responsibility for inserting the tail. The model in the photograph is the “Basking” colour variant. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
When inserting or removing the tail, we recommend an adult takes responsibility for this.
To view the range of Rebor models and figures in stock at Everything Dinosaur: Rebor Figures and Models.
The Rebor GrabNGo alligator fossils come with assembly and disassembly instructions. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Rebor Models and Figures
Rebor has extended its range to include extant reptiles as well as prehistoric animals. The two alligator figures join the recently introduced “Lonesome George” giant tortoise.
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:
“The two new alligator models are extremely detailed. It is recommended that the tail piece is gently heated before inserting it into the body piece. Hot water can be used to heat up the joints. However, we urge caution as the figure is hollow and if hot water is used, it would be necessary to drain any excess water before attempting to secure the tail.”
The Rebor GNG07 alligator figure in the Downpour colouration.
The boom in the trade for mammoth tusks threatens extant elephant populations and their habitats. This is the conclusion of newly published research from the University of Portsmouth.
Conservationists and campaigners fear an increase in the buying and selling of mammoth tusks poses a direct threat to elephants. The trade in “ice ivory” was banned in the UK in 2018. The ban was imposed following a Portsmouth University led investigation into the British antiques trade of the material.
Humans encounter a Woolly Mammoth. A boom in “ice ivory” trade of mammoth tusks presents a threat to elephants and the environment. Picture credit: Mark Witton.
The Trade in Mammoth Tusks
Earlier this year (2023), it was announced the Ivory Act would be extended to protect five more endangered CITES-listed species, including the hippopotamus, narwhal, walrus, orca and sperm whale. However, new research highlights the unregulated sale of mammoth tusks needs to be addressed. The species fall outside of the regulation of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). This is an international, multi-government agreement set up to ensure the survival of animals and plant species.
The authors argue that while woolly mammoths became extinct thousands of years ago, their lives and ultimate demise has much to teach us about how we conserve and protect existing elephant populations.
Prehistoric elephants on display at the Senckenberg Museum (Frankfurt). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
What About Other Prehistoric Elephant Genera?
Everything Dinosaur notes, that many species of extinct elephant had large tusks. Whilst the tusks eroding out of melting Siberian permafrost might usually be associated with the Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), tusks from other extinct species might be traded too. For example, tusks from the American Mastodon (Mammut americanum) or the Columbian mammoth (Mammuthus columbi) found in North America might also be bought and sold.
The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Mastodon model. The trade in the ivory of other prehistoric elephants would also need to be controlled.
The picture (above) shows a model of the American Mastodon by Safari Ltd.
Prehistoric Elephant Tusks Labelled as Ivory from Extant Species
Lead author in the recently published paper, Dr Caroline Cox (University of Portsmouth) commented:
“There’s evidence traders are trying to sustain the illegal ivory market with mammoth tusks, by intentionally mislabelling ice ivory as elephant ivory. Modern elephants and woolly mammoths share a common ancestor, so their tusks have close similarities. Instead of profiting from these new discoveries, we should be learning from them – how mammoths lived and how they died – to help protect their endangered relatives.”
It is estimated the illegal wildlife trade to be collectively worth between $15-22.5 billion USD a year. This puts the trade on a par with the illegal arms trade, the illegal drugs trade and the trade in human trafficking.
Schreger Lines in Elephant Ivory
Co-author of the study, Luke Hauser (University of Portsmouth) explained:
“Structurally, mammoth ivory is fundamentally identical to elephant ivory. Both have Schreger lines, which are distinct characteristics of the species.”
The majority of the ivory coming out of Siberia is woolly mammoth, but because evolution is a slow process there would have been crossovers between their characteristics and their predecessors. In theory, a trader could have a document claiming a tusk is from a Steppe Mammoth (M. trogontherii) when in fact it is actually a Woolly Mammoth (M. primigenius). Conservationists could not argue otherwise without an expensive and lengthy DNA test.
It is more than a decade since eBay announced its own complete, worldwide ban on ivory sales. An on-line post stated that the global ban would “protect buyers and sellers, as well as animals in danger of extinction”. Unfortunately, recent studies have shown that sellers of illegal wildlife products operate on the dark web, rather than more openly through on-line social media and auction platforms.
The Trade in Mammoth Tusks Damages the Fossil Record
Dr Cox explained:
“While mammoth tusks continue to be in demand, particularly in the Far East, the Siberian tusk hunters of Yakutia recover only what the buyers want – the ivory. The remains of the mammoth are left behind and lost to science.”
The mining of mammoth tusks is dangerous. It is often illegal, and it damages the environment. The law of the Russian Federation states that only mammoth tusks that have come to the surface, usually as a result of the permafrost melting, can be harvested. However, this is extremely difficult to enforce. Miners can speed up the erosion process by using high pressure hoses to blast the permafrost. The industrial mining of the permafrost also releases huge amounts of greenhouse gases such as methane. This is leading to accelerated global warming.
The paper, published in the “Journal of International Wildlife Law and Policy”, states that the best and most effective way of tackling issues surrounding the “ice ivory” trade is international cooperation from nations sharing resources and intelligence.
Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Portsmouth in the compilation of this article.
The scientific paper: “Ice Ivory to White Gold: Links Between the Illegal Ivory Trade and the Trade in Geocultural Artifacts” by Caroline Cox and Luke Hauser published in the Journal of International Wildlife Law & Policy.
Team members at Everything Dinosaur photographed a huge estuarine crocodile skull on display at a London museum. The stunning skull was part of an exhibit demonstrating reptile anatomy at the Grant Museum of Zoology (London).
An anterior view of the skull of an estuarine crocodile photographed in the Grant Museum, London. The largest reptile on Earth, the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) from south-east Asia is also known as the saltwater crocodile or saltie. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
An Estuarine Crocodile Skull
The Grant Museum is currently closed. It is undergoing a redevelopment programme. Everything Dinosaur visited this amazing museum in 2018. The Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy was established in 1827 by Robert Edmond Grant (1793-1874). It was established to serve as a teaching collection at the newly founded University of London (later University College London).
We photographed the estuarine crocodile skull in anterior view. The estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is the largest living reptile. Some specimens weigh more than a tonne. It is a formidable predator, and it is also referred to as the saltwater crocodile or saltie.
These crocodiles inhabit both freshwater and brackish environments. They have been observed swimming far out at sea. This may explain their extensive geographical distribution. These crocodiles are found from India’s eastern coast to northern Australia. They are apex predators and generalist carnivores. This crocodile is regarded as a maneater and sadly, there are numerous fatal attacks reported each year.
Once hunted for its skin, the numbers of this species of crocodile have dramatically increased since legal protection was implemented.
The Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy
The Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy is an amazing place to visit. It is full of stunning skeletons demonstrating the diversity of vertebrate life on Earth. It is also home to a vast collection of invertebrate specimens. If in London in 2024, a visit to this museum is recommended.
Newly published research studying bird evolution suggests a link between complex skeletons and reduced biodiversity. As birds develop more complex anatomies, they also decrease in diversity, with fewer species as they become more specialised within specific ecological niches.
A newly published study suggests a strong link between birds evolving complex skeletons such as this specialised scavenger (vulture) and decreasing biodiversity. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Studying Patterns in Bird Evolution
Researchers at the Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath collaborated with colleagues at the University of Lincoln, University College London and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Their findings have been published in the journal “Nature Communications”.
The team looked at 983 species across all major groups of living birds and measured the complexity of their skeletons by comparing the bones in their fore limbs (wings) and hind limbs (legs).
They found that less complex birds – those with a smaller differences between their fore and hind limbs – had more species diversity than those with higher complexity and a larger difference between their limbs.
As an example, birds such as pigeons, gulls and songbirds (passerines) have low skeletal complexity but a high diversity of species living in varied habitats across the world.
At the other end of the spectrum, flamingos, and ostriches have short wings in comparison to their legs, and so have more complex limb skeletons. Groups with more complex skeletons may occupy smaller niches and are less able to subdivide those niche spaces in order to produce new species.
Trapped in an Ecological Niche
Whilst evolution can produce forms with lower complexity, these findings suggest that birds with more complex skeletons have become more specialised over time and so more developmentally entrenched. This may make them less likely to evolve back to become simpler again. In essence, Aves with complex skeletons may find themselves trapped within a specific ecological niche.
Could these findings be reflected in extinct bird groups such as the Phorusrhacidae? Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Causes of Biodiversity
Professor Matthew Wills, (Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath) explained:
“We wanted to understand what causes some groups of birds to be species rich and others to be species poor – although ecology obviously plays an important part, it doesn’t account for the huge differences we see in biodiversity.”
Professor Wills added:
“The received wisdom is that there is no direction to evolution – that selection can act in any direction. Our study suggests that, in birds at least, the more they specialise, the less they are able to give rise to new species.”
A Case of Putting All Your Eggs in One Basket
The scientists also found that birds with more complex skeletons were generally more ecologically specialised, occupying fewer habitats and foraging for food in less varied ways.
Lead author of the paper, PhD student Andrew Brinkworth (Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath) stated:
“Species can evolve to be specialised, and fill very small niches. However, in doing so, they restrict the number of routes they can evolve further, meaning they are likely to be less resilient to changes in the environment such as those caused by habitat loss, disruption to food chains and climate change.”
Andrew added:
“From our findings we predict that birds with more complex skeletons and less diversity will be at greater risk of extinction from these changes.”
Wider Implications for Bird Evolution and Animal Life
The researchers intend to broaden their research to see if this pattern is repeated in other animal groups. It would be interesting to see if this relationship between complex skeletons and reduced biodiversity can be identified in extinct groups, including theropod dinosaurs.
Could such a pattern be identified in the Theropoda to bird evolution lineage?
Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of media release from the University of Bath in the compilation of this article.
The scientific paper: “Bird clades with less complex appendicular skeletons tend to have higher species richness” by Andrew Brinkworth, Emily Green, Yimeng Li, Jack Oyston, Marcello Ruta, Matthew A. Wills published in Nature Communications.
Team members at Everything Dinosaur observed a small Common frog in the office pond this evening. It could be from the frogspawn laid in February. This year (2023), was the first year that frogspawn had been laid in the pond during the month of February. The first batch of frogspawn was produced on February 28th.
In the late evening, a small Common frog was observed in the pond. It was much larger than the froglets that had been seen recently. It could be a frog that is at least twelve months old. Perhaps, it is a well-fed adult that metamorphosed from this year’s spawn.
Can you spot the frog in the picture? The frog could be from a batch of spawn laid in February this year. The species is the Common frog (Rana temporaria). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
A Common Frog (Rana temporaria)
Team members have been busy helping to improve the small office pond. Native pond weed was purchased and introduced to help reduce the level of algae and to oxygenate the water. Pebbles have been added to the shallows to permit easier access for birds that want to bathe.
Two different types of pond snail (Great Ramshorn and Great Pond Snail) have been added. These snails Lymnaea stagnalis and Planorbarius corneus respectively, were removed from a local ditch that had recently been cleaned out. With little to eat in the ditch, ten Great Ramshorns were taken along with four Great Pond Snails and added to the office pond. By removing some snails from the ditch, this would help that ecosystem as well as permitting a small population of snails to assist with managing the algae in the office pond.
Invertebrate life is thriving and recently Backswimmers (Notonecta) have repopulated the pond.
All these invertebrates and the abundance of vegetation in and around the shallow pond have made an ideal habitat for frogs.
A close-up view of the frog spotted in the office pond. This could be a frog that emerged from spawn laid in February. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Spotting a Frog
We are not sure whether the small frog we spotted is from this year’s frogspawn. However, if the frogspawn was laid early in the season, then the frogs once they have emerged from the pond, would have a longer growing season. So, it is possible that this year’s frogs would have grown to the size of the one photographed. There is certainly plenty for the frogs to eat and lots of places for them to hide.
Team members will continue to work hard to keep the office pond healthy and its inhabitants happy.
