Team members at Everything Dinosaur photographed a huge estuarine crocodile skull on display at a London museum. The stunning skull was part of an exhibit demonstrating reptile anatomy at the Grant Museum of Zoology (London).
An anterior view of the skull of an estuarine crocodile photographed in the Grant Museum, London. The largest reptile on Earth, the estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) from south-east Asia is also known as the saltwater crocodile or saltie. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
An Estuarine Crocodile Skull
The Grant Museum is currently closed. It is undergoing a redevelopment programme. Everything Dinosaur visited this amazing museum in 2018. The Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy was established in 1827 by Robert Edmond Grant (1793-1874). It was established to serve as a teaching collection at the newly founded University of London (later University College London).
We photographed the estuarine crocodile skull in anterior view. The estuarine crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) is the largest living reptile. Some specimens weigh more than a tonne. It is a formidable predator, and it is also referred to as the saltwater crocodile or saltie.
These crocodiles inhabit both freshwater and brackish environments. They have been observed swimming far out at sea. This may explain their extensive geographical distribution. These crocodiles are found from India’s eastern coast to northern Australia. They are apex predators and generalist carnivores. This crocodile is regarded as a maneater and sadly, there are numerous fatal attacks reported each year.
Once hunted for its skin, the numbers of this species of crocodile have dramatically increased since legal protection was implemented.
The Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy
The Grant Museum of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy is an amazing place to visit. It is full of stunning skeletons demonstrating the diversity of vertebrate life on Earth. It is also home to a vast collection of invertebrate specimens. If in London in 2024, a visit to this museum is recommended.
Newly published research studying bird evolution suggests a link between complex skeletons and reduced biodiversity. As birds develop more complex anatomies, they also decrease in diversity, with fewer species as they become more specialised within specific ecological niches.
A newly published study suggests a strong link between birds evolving complex skeletons such as this specialised scavenger (vulture) and decreasing biodiversity. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Studying Patterns in Bird Evolution
Researchers at the Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath collaborated with colleagues at the University of Lincoln, University College London and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Their findings have been published in the journal “Nature Communications”.
The team looked at 983 species across all major groups of living birds and measured the complexity of their skeletons by comparing the bones in their fore limbs (wings) and hind limbs (legs).
They found that less complex birds – those with a smaller differences between their fore and hind limbs – had more species diversity than those with higher complexity and a larger difference between their limbs.
As an example, birds such as pigeons, gulls and songbirds (passerines) have low skeletal complexity but a high diversity of species living in varied habitats across the world.
At the other end of the spectrum, flamingos, and ostriches have short wings in comparison to their legs, and so have more complex limb skeletons. Groups with more complex skeletons may occupy smaller niches and are less able to subdivide those niche spaces in order to produce new species.
Trapped in an Ecological Niche
Whilst evolution can produce forms with lower complexity, these findings suggest that birds with more complex skeletons have become more specialised over time and so more developmentally entrenched. This may make them less likely to evolve back to become simpler again. In essence, Aves with complex skeletons may find themselves trapped within a specific ecological niche.
Could these findings be reflected in extinct bird groups such as the Phorusrhacidae? Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Causes of Biodiversity
Professor Matthew Wills, (Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath) explained:
“We wanted to understand what causes some groups of birds to be species rich and others to be species poor – although ecology obviously plays an important part, it doesn’t account for the huge differences we see in biodiversity.”
Professor Wills added:
“The received wisdom is that there is no direction to evolution – that selection can act in any direction. Our study suggests that, in birds at least, the more they specialise, the less they are able to give rise to new species.”
A Case of Putting All Your Eggs in One Basket
The scientists also found that birds with more complex skeletons were generally more ecologically specialised, occupying fewer habitats and foraging for food in less varied ways.
Lead author of the paper, PhD student Andrew Brinkworth (Milner Centre for Evolution at the University of Bath) stated:
“Species can evolve to be specialised, and fill very small niches. However, in doing so, they restrict the number of routes they can evolve further, meaning they are likely to be less resilient to changes in the environment such as those caused by habitat loss, disruption to food chains and climate change.”
Andrew added:
“From our findings we predict that birds with more complex skeletons and less diversity will be at greater risk of extinction from these changes.”
Wider Implications for Bird Evolution and Animal Life
The researchers intend to broaden their research to see if this pattern is repeated in other animal groups. It would be interesting to see if this relationship between complex skeletons and reduced biodiversity can be identified in extinct groups, including theropod dinosaurs.
Could such a pattern be identified in the Theropoda to bird evolution lineage?
Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of media release from the University of Bath in the compilation of this article.
The scientific paper: “Bird clades with less complex appendicular skeletons tend to have higher species richness” by Andrew Brinkworth, Emily Green, Yimeng Li, Jack Oyston, Marcello Ruta, Matthew A. Wills published in Nature Communications.
Team members at Everything Dinosaur observed a small Common frog in the office pond this evening. It could be from the frogspawn laid in February. This year (2023), was the first year that frogspawn had been laid in the pond during the month of February. The first batch of frogspawn was produced on February 28th.
In the late evening, a small Common frog was observed in the pond. It was much larger than the froglets that had been seen recently. It could be a frog that is at least twelve months old. Perhaps, it is a well-fed adult that metamorphosed from this year’s spawn.
Can you spot the frog in the picture? The frog could be from a batch of spawn laid in February this year. The species is the Common frog (Rana temporaria). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
A Common Frog (Rana temporaria)
Team members have been busy helping to improve the small office pond. Native pond weed was purchased and introduced to help reduce the level of algae and to oxygenate the water. Pebbles have been added to the shallows to permit easier access for birds that want to bathe.
Two different types of pond snail (Great Ramshorn and Great Pond Snail) have been added. These snails Lymnaea stagnalis and Planorbarius corneus respectively, were removed from a local ditch that had recently been cleaned out. With little to eat in the ditch, ten Great Ramshorns were taken along with four Great Pond Snails and added to the office pond. By removing some snails from the ditch, this would help that ecosystem as well as permitting a small population of snails to assist with managing the algae in the office pond.
Invertebrate life is thriving and recently Backswimmers (Notonecta) have repopulated the pond.
All these invertebrates and the abundance of vegetation in and around the shallow pond have made an ideal habitat for frogs.
A close-up view of the frog spotted in the office pond. This could be a frog that emerged from spawn laid in February. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Spotting a Frog
We are not sure whether the small frog we spotted is from this year’s frogspawn. However, if the frogspawn was laid early in the season, then the frogs once they have emerged from the pond, would have a longer growing season. So, it is possible that this year’s frogs would have grown to the size of the one photographed. There is certainly plenty for the frogs to eat and lots of places for them to hide.
Team members will continue to work hard to keep the office pond healthy and its inhabitants happy.
Nile crocodiles react to the sound of hominid babies crying. In a newly published study, the researchers state that crocodiles can detect elevated levels of distress in the cry of babies better than us (Homo sapiens). Their ability to distinguish between different types of cries might be a behaviour that helps support their predatory instincts. Crocodiles able to react to hominid baby sounds might be a preconditioned response associated with targeting prey.
Writing in the “Proceedings of the Royal Society B”, the researchers from the University of Saint-Etienne and Lyon University (France), claim that crocodiles are more responsive to higher-intensity cries.
A model of a crocodile with an articulated lower jaw.
The picture (above) shows a crocodile model from the Mojo Fun range.
The scientists exposed Nile crocodiles (Crocodylus niloticus) in a zoo to cries from human, chimpanzee and bonobo infants. The researchers observed the reaction of the crocodiles. Some turned their heads, others moved towards the speakers. It was noted that some crocodiles in the study submerged themselves. Hiding in the water might be interpreted as predatory behaviour, as these reptiles tend to ambush prey from a submerged position.
The study used two types of baby human cries, during bath time at home with the parents and the cries of babies being vaccinated. The vaccination cries were interpreted as being higher intensity crying, the babies having elevated stress levels. Some of the more intense baby cries caused a much higher percentage of the crocodiles to react. To see if there were specific qualities of those sounds that made the crocodiles respond, the researchers also examined some of the acoustic properties of the cries being tested.
It was discovered that the crocodilians were more responsive to crying sounds with more energy in the higher sound frequencies. They also reacted to crying sounds with irregularities in the sound wave patterns. These cries are associated with higher levels of distress.
Sensitive Crocodiles or Simply Curious Crocodilians
Distress vocalisations alert a variety of terrestrial vertebrates. There are shared acoustic features that alert parents and conspecifics and cause them to react to the sounds. This study suggests that acoustic traits used to decode distress may vary between species. This research suggests that crocodiles are sensitive to the degree of distress encoded in the vocalisations of phylogenetically very distant vertebrates. It could be a predatory response, or perhaps the responses reflect a level of curiosity within crocodilians.
Curiosity is not a trait readily associated with these ancient reptiles.
A comparison of these results with those obtained with human subjects confronted with the same sounds further indicates that crocodiles and humans use different acoustic criteria to assess the cries of infants. Interestingly, the acoustic features driving crocodile reactions are likely to be more reliable markers of distress than those used by humans.
The scientific paper “Crocodile perception of distress in hominid baby cries” by Julie Thévenet, Léo Papet, Gérard Coureaud, Nicolas Boyer, Florence Levréro, Nicolas Grimault and Nicolas Mathevon published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B.
In Europe during the Pleistocene Epoch, brown bears (Ursus arctos) and the now extinct cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) co-existed. Did these large mammals compete for food? A recently published study that examined the jaw mechanics of each bear suggests that they had different diets.
A lower jaw from a cave bear which is around 40,000 years old. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Fossils from the Goyet Caves in Belgium
Three-dimensional analysis of jawbone fossils excavated from the caves of Goyet in Belgium show clear differences in jaw and dentition configuration. This suggests that brown bears and cave bears had different diets. The study also demonstrates that the diet of brown bears from 30,000 years ago differs only slightly from that of their North American relatives still living today.
Extant brown bears are the closest living relative to the extinct cave bear. Cave bears (U. spelaeus), are thought to have died out around 25,000 years ago.
Lateral view of the Papo Cave Bear model. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
The picture (above) shows a model of a cave bear (Ursus spelaeus) from the Papo model range.
Scientists estimate that brown bears and cave bears co-existed from about 1.3 million years ago up until the extinction of the cave bear. They lived in the same habitats and probably competed for plant food. The caves of Goyet and Trou des Nutons in Belgium contain the remains of both bear species, which are about 30,000 years old.
Writing in the journal “Boreas”, Anneke van Heteren, mammal curator at the Zoologische Staatssammlung München (SNSB-ZSM), and Mietje Germonpré of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (RBINS) showed that the two contemporaries fed differently.
The cave bear was probably entirely vegetarian, whilst the brown bear was an omnivore even then, just like it is today. The shape and biomechanics of the jaws of the two bear species differ significantly. In addition, the scientists were also able to identify small differences in the jaws of the fossil brown bears compared to their conspecifics still living today.
Anneke van Heteren commented:
“Presumably, the fossil brown bears from Belgium ate slightly more plant food than the brown bears from North America today.”
Studying the Fossils of Cubs
The researchers also examined the fossilised jaws of cave bear cubs from the cave network. Their jaws were less well suited to chewing solid food than those of the adults.
Dr Anneke van Heteren added:
“The young bears were also still being fed milk by their mothers. Their jaws first had to adapt to the later development of their permanent dentition.”
The biomechanical differences in the jaws are particularly evident in their gape angles when chewing their food. The study team used geometric morphometrics to assess these physical differences. This is the measurement of skeletal parts with the help of measuring points, so-called landmarks. The method allowed the researchers to visualise the jawbones of the bears in three dimensions. Once a three-dimensional model has been created, the function of the jaw and the teeth can be assessed using statistical methods.
Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences in the compilation of this article.
The scientific paper: “Geometric morphometric assessment of the fossil bears of Namur, Belgium: Allometry and ecomorphology” by Anneke H. van Heteren and Mietje Germonpré published in the journal Boreas.
A goose meets a dinosaur! Our thanks to dinosaur fan and model collector Jessica who sent into Everything Dinosaur some photographs of her recently acquired Papo Compsognathus dinosaur model. The Compsognathus was photographed being studied by her pet geese.
A curious seven-week-old goose studies the Papo Compsognathus dinosaur model. Picture credit: Jessica.
Three Theropods Together
Ducks and geese are members of the Anseriformes, an ancient Order of birds that probably originated in the Late Cretaceous. Waterfowl would have co-existed alongside non-avian dinosaurs and pterosaurs. The earliest Cretaceous anseriform known to science is Vegavis (V. iaai). Its fossils come from the Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian faunal stage) of Antarctica. A study published in 2017 postulated that just like modern geese, Vegavis probably honked!
Anseriforms, like all birds are descended from theropod dinosaurs.
Three members of the Theropoda together. A pair of geese and the Papo Compsognathus figure. Picture credit: Jessica.
Jessica emailed Everything Dinosaur stating:
“I just received my latest order today and I thought that you might like to see the Papo Compsognathus making friends with some of his distant relatives…”
Goose Meets a Dinosaur
The geese are seven weeks old. They already resemble adult birds. Their rapid growth is a possible ancestral trait passed on by their ancient non-avian dinosaur ancestors.
The birds seem to be very interested in the Papo Compsognathus figure.
Jessica added:
“I think they are possibly the most curious creatures on Earth!”
The Papo Compsognathus figure was introduced to the Papo “Les Dinosaures” range in 2018. It has proved to be a popular model, especially as it resembles the Compsognathus dinosaurs depicted in the film “The Lost World: Jurassic Park”, which was the second instalment of the “Jurassic Park” franchise.
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur thanked Jessica for the photographs and commented:
“What delightful photographs! It is always a pleasure to hear from our customers. We wonder what the Compsognathus thought about it all the attention it was getting from these very distant relatives.”
A baby frog spotted by an Everything Dinosaur team member close to the company’s office pond. This is the first frog observed from this year’s breeding season. The tiny frog (Rana temporaria) was observed in a small patch of gravel. This area has been left and weeds allowed to grow, thus providing shelter and habitat for animal’s leaving the pond.
Can you spot the frog? The baby frog that recently emerged from the office pond. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Baby Frog Spotted (Rana temporaria)
The frog is a Common Frog (Rana temporaria). In common with all British amphibians this frog is protected under the Wildlife and Countryside Act, 1981. Garden ponds are an increasingly important habitat for them. In return, they help keep slug and snail numbers down. In short, amphibians like the Common Frog are the gardener’s friend.
The first batch of frogspawn was laid in the office pond on February 28th. This is the earliest recorded date for frogs spawning in our pond. We suspect that the spotting of a baby frog on the evening of 24th June is the earliest recorded date for observing a frog from that year’s breeding season.
A close-up view of the tiny, baby frog spotted near to the office pond. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Doing Our Bit for Conservation
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented that team members had been busy looking after the office pond and removing excessive algae on a regular basis. The water level is quite low, but the pond is being carefully monitored to ensure it remains an attractive habitat for fauna and flora.
Recently, some oxygenating hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum) was introduced to the pond. This plant will grow rapidly and help to combat the excessive growth of any algae. It is hardy, tough and fast growing. Hopefully, the introduction of this oxygenator will help to keep the pond in good condition and encourage lots of wildlife.
The spokesperson added:
“We like doing our bit for conservation. Many ponds around us have been filled in and we are pleased that our little pond is helping to maintain the local frog population. We shall keep observing the pond area, we might spot more baby frogs.”
Visit Everything Dinosaur’s user-friendly and award-winning website: Everything Dinosaur.
Team members at Everything Dinosaur spotted a resting dragonfly near the office pond. The insect had just completed its final moult. It was very early in the morning, we suspect this dragonfly had emerged from the water the previous night. The final moult stage for dragonflies can last several hours. During this time, these magnificent insects are vulnerable to predation from birds.
A beautiful dragonfly spotted near the office pond in the early morning. The warm and calm weather has encouraged these stunning insects to emerge. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
A Resting Dragonfly
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented that several exuvia (cast skins) had been discovered on the vegetation surrounding the office pond. This was the first time a resting dragonfly had been spotted this year (2023). The dragonfly could be a Southern Hawker (Aeshna cyanea).
The spokesperson explained that they did not want to get too close.
He added:
“It was wonderful to watch this stunning insect. We did not want to get too close as it had probably only just emerged from its final moult, and we did not want to startle it. Had the dragonfly been alarmed it might have damaged its beautiful wings.”
There was time to take a photograph and a few minutes later the dragonfly was airborne. It was ready to commence its life as an adult.
Everything Dinosaur has added a horseshoe crab soft toy to its range of prehistoric plush. The horseshoe crab is very cuddly, sponge washable and is a wonderful new addition to the company’s prehistoric animal soft toy range.
Everything Dinosaur has added a soft toy horseshoe crab to it range of prehistoric animal soft toys. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Horseshoe Crab Soft Toy
Animals in the family Limulidae are called “horseshoe crabs” due to the shape of their carapace which is shaped like a horseshoe. These ancient animals are not crabs. The first of these amazing creatures is thought to have evolved around 480 million years ago in the Ordovician. Often described as “living fossils” the four remaining species are the last representatives of the family, which was much more diverse in prehistoric times. Their body shape has not changed for millions of years.
Prehistoric plush! The soft and cuddly horseshoe crab.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Important Animals for Medical Research
These ancient creatures, with their famous, blue-coloured blood are playing an important role in medicine.
In the 1950s, researchers noticed that the blood of the western Atlantic horseshoe crab species (called Limulus polyphemus by scientists) clots quickly when exposed to certain bacteria. With further study, scientists determined that a compound called LAL (short for Limulus Amebocyte Lysate) is responsible for the clotting. LAL acts as a safeguard for the animals, reacting when it comes into contact with bacteria, fungi, and perhaps most importantly, proteins called endotoxins that are part of the cell structure of certain bacteria.
If these endotoxins get into a person’s bloodstream, they can cause a range of problems from fever to burst blood vessels in the brain. Even after an item has been sterilised of live bacteria, endotoxins can be residual. Researchers quickly saw the potential to use LAL as a simple, reliable test for endotoxins and developed methods to extract the compound. These ancient and increasingly rare marine animals continue to be studied by scientists, keen to understand more about their unique physiology.
The horseshoe crab soft toy will be supplied with an Everything Dinosaur horseshoe crab fact sheet.
An Everything Dinosaur Fact Sheet
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur welcomed the arrival of the horseshoe crab soft toy. It joins several other Palaeozoic plush such as the ammonite and belemnite soft toys.
The spokesperson stated:
“It is a very colourful prehistoric animal soft toy. This item of prehistoric plush has bright red legs, a cream-coloured underside and a brown carapace. It has beautiful, cute eyes and a long soft tail. The horseshoe crab soft toy is a welcome addition to our soft toy range.”
An Everything Dinosaur horseshoe crab fact sheet will be sent out with sales of this new soft toy.
Everything Dinosaur team members have recorded the sixth batch of frogspawn in the office pond. The recent cold snap has ended and the wetter and milder weather may have encouraged more frogs to spawn. A sixth batch of frogspawn was observed early this morning. We suspect that it had been laid last night or in the early hours of the morning.
The sixth batch of frogspawn spotted in the office pond on March 12th 2023. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Common Frogs
At least one Common frog (Rana temporaria) is still in the pond. The frog has a bright white throat patch so, we suspect that this is a male. Team members will continue to monitor the pond to see if more frogspawn is laid. Frog numbers have declined in recent years. Five years ago, as many as a dozen frogs could be seen in the pond during the spawning season. Hopefully, our small pond will continue to support a frog population, attract other wildlife and provide a bathing area for nesting birds.
