A scientific paper was published earlier this week that announced two new Hateg Basin sauropod taxa.  These dinosaurs were named Petrustitan hungaricus and Uriash kadici.  At least four sauropod taxa are known from the Hateg Basin.  However, as the sediments in this region cover several million years, it is likely that these four taxa were not contemporaneous.  It is also likely that additional sauropod genera are represented in the fossil deposits.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s earlier blog post about this new study: New Hateg Basin Sauropods are Described.

We have been asked to provide a little more information on the largest of these four sauropod taxa. As this area consisted of a series of large islands at the end of the Cretaceous, it was thought that the dinosaur fauna in this region consisted mostly of dwarf forms.  However, this idea of the Hateg Basin dinosaur fauna representing examples of “island dwarfism” has been challenged.  For example, the newly described U. kadici is thought to amongst the biggest European Late Cretaceous sauropods know to science.

The Hateg Basin Sauropod Fauna – A Complex Picture

The first sauropod to be named and described from this region of western Romania was Magyarosaurus. The German palaeontologist Friedrich von Huene erected this genus in 1932.  He assigned three species to this genus.

1. Magyarosaurus dacus – now recognised as the only valid species.
2. The nomen dubium Magyarosaurus transsylvanicus – a nomen dubium with assigned fossil material thought to represent more than one species of sauropod.
3. Magyarosaurus hungaricus – renamed in 2025 as Petrustitan hungaricus (Verónica Díez Díaz et al).

It is likely that the substantial number of fossils, often isolated and fragmentary remains found in western Romania represent several more, as yet undescribed sauropod taxa.

The Wild Past Magyarosaurus dinosaur model, a replica of this dwarf titanosaur taxon. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture shows a model of the dwarf titanosaur Magyarosaurus sent to Everything Dinosaur by Wild Past.

To view the range of Wild Past models and figures in stock: Wild Past Prehistoric Animal Figures.

Uriash kadici – A Giant Amongst Hateg Basin Sauropods

The second, newly described Hateg Basin sauropod is an outlier in terms of size.  Whilst three of the four Hateg Basin sauropod taxa described to date were relatively small, Uriash kadici was much larger. Size estimates vary but it could have had a body length of around twelve metres.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur explained that three of the four known Hateg Basin sauropod taxa were relatively small.  Although size estimates vary, it is possible to compare these four taxa and to produce a scale drawing.

• Magyarosaurus dacus – 3 metres (<1 tonne).
• Paludititan nalatzensis – 6 metres (2 tonnes).
• Petrustitan hungaricus – 6-7 metres (2 tonnes+).
• Uriash kadici – 12 metres (5-8 tonnes).

Comparing the size of Hateg Island sauropods. Uriash kadici is the biggest taxon described to date. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur from Brian Cooley/Dan Horatiu Popa/Hateg County UNESCO Global Geopark.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur from Brian Cooley/Dan Horatiu Popa/Hateg County UNESCO Global Geopark

Uriash kadici is the largest titanosaurian taxon described to date from the Hateg Basin.  It is larger than most of the other Late Cretaceous European titanosaurs.  Its size is only surpassed by Abditosaurus (A. kuehnei).  Abditosaurus fossils come from southern Pyrenees of Spain.  It was formally described in 2022 (Vila et al).  Abditosaurus is thought to have measured around seventeen metres long.

To read a blog post about this dinosaur: Abditosaurus – The First New Dinosaur of 2022.

What’s in a Name?

The genus name comes from the Romanian word ‘uriaș’ (pronounced ‘uriash’). It refers to gigantic humanoid characters from Romanian folklore. The species name honours Ottokár Kadić (1876–1957), a geologist and palaeontologist of the Royal Geological Survey of Hungary and discoverer of several continental vertebrate-bearing fossil localities in the north-western Hateg Basin, including the type locality of Uriash.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur explained that the recent study focusing on the Hateg Basin sauropods had expanded knowledge about European titanosaurs.  However, much remains to be discovered.  New fossil quarries will be opened, and new material will help to fill in the gaps and provide palaeontologists with a better understanding of Late Cretaceous sauropod evolution.

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys and Models.

Two new species of Hateg Basin sauropods have been identified.  Their fossils come from the Upper Cretaceous deposits of the Hateg Basin in western Romania.  The discovery of these new taxa can help palaeontologists to better understand dinosaur populations across the planet prior to the end-Cretaceous extinction event. The study led by Verónica Díez Díaz from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin (Germany) demonstrates how important Europe’s fossils are when it comes to providing a more complete picture of dinosaur extinction.

Scientists from the University College London and the University of Bucharest collaborated in this research.

Hateg Basin Sauropods

The researchers report two new sauropod taxa from the Hateg Basin.  They have been named Petrustitan hungaricus and Uriash kadici. During the Late Cretaceous, much of the Europe was covered by water. However, an archipelago existed in what is known today as eastern Europe. The largest island (Hateg Island) was approximately 120 miles (200 km) from the nearest landmass. Size estimates vary, but it has been suggested that by the very end of the Cretaceous (Maastrichtian faunal stage), Hateg Island covered an area of around thirty thousand square miles. It was roughly the size of the Japanese island Hokkaido.

The archipelago was home to several different sauropod taxa.  The diversity of sauropods in the Late Cretaceous of Europe is much greater than previously thought.  Fifteen years ago, only five sauropod species were known from the Late Cretaceous of Europe.  Today, at least eleven taxa have been identified.  In contrast, only a single sauropod species is known from the Late Cretaceous of America (Alamosaurus sanjuanensis).

Commenting on the significance of this new study into Hateg Basin sauropods, corresponding author Verónica Díez Díaz (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin) stated:

“The extraordinary diversity in a small geographical area like Hațeg Island surprises us. Sauropods of different sizes lived side by side here: from giants over 10 metres long and weighing eight tonnes to dwarfs of just 2.5 metres and weighing less than a tonne. This provides exciting insights into the environmental conditions and the coexistence of different species.”

The researchers propose the presence of three additional, but only partly contemporaneous taxa in the Hateg Basin. These are Paludititan nalatzensis, Petrustitan (‘Magyarosaurus’) hungaricus and the much larger Uriash kadici. U. kadici is amongst the biggest known sauropods of the Late Cretaceous European Archipelago. Picture credit: Brian Cooley/Dan Horatiu Popa/Hațeg County UNESCO Global Geopark.

Picture credit: Brian Cooley/Dan Horatiu Popa/Hațeg County UNESCO Global Geopark

Giants and Dwarf Sauropods

Traditionally, the fauna of Hateg Island was thought to consist mainly of smaller relatives of dinosaur genera found on larger landmasses.  It had been assumed that the dinosaurs of Hateg Island became smaller due to the limited amount of resources on the island.  This biological phenomenon is known as island dwarfism (insular dwarfism).  This idea was postulated by the famous 20th Century polymath Baron Franz Nopcsa von Felső-Szilvás. He argued that the limited resources such as food, water and space on islands would result in a reduction of the size of animals that lived there. These island dwelling populations would become smaller over many generations when compared to their continental counterparts.

For example, the ornithopod Tethyshadros (T. insularis) was once thought to be a dwarf hadrosauroid.  However, subsequent analysis indicates that it was around twenty-five percent larger than previously thought.

To read more about this 2021 study: Sizing up Tethyshadros.

The biota of the Hateg Basin seems to be much more complicated and diverse.  For instance, whilst a number of Hateg Basin sauropods are relatively small, the newly described Uriash kadici may have been more than eleven metres in length.

Co-author Zoltán Csiki-Sava (University of Bucharest) added:

“Local evolution was more complex than expected and shows that not all species reduced their size.”

European Dinosaurs Linked to Gondwanan Lineages

This study also highlights the links between European dinosaur taxa and their relatives in Asia, Africa and South America.  The team’s findings strengthen the hypothesis that Late Cretaceous European titanosaurs belonged to Gondwanan lineages that invaded the former area during the Barremian–Albian faunal stages of the Early Cretaceous.  Paul Upchurch (University College London) explained that Gondwanan sauropods migrated into Europe over land bridges that existed in the Early Cretaceous.  However, sauropods were probably very capable swimmers and may have traversed distances in excess of three hundred miles (500 kilometres) to reach distant islands.

Co-author Philip Mannion (University College London) commented:

“Some of these dinosaurs were descendants of earlier faunas, while others arrived in the region late.”

Why were Large Hateg Island Sauropods Present?

The researchers interpret the presence of body-size disparity as either evidence that large-bodied taxa were ecologically excluded from body-size reduction by competition with small-bodied titanosaurs, or that dwarfing occurred stratigraphically earlier among several lineages and the small-bodied titanosaurs on Hațeg Island are the descendants of existing dwarfed ancestors. In addition, the team report that they found no indication of a body size-related titanosaurian turnover in the uppermost Cretaceous of the Transylvanian area.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Revision of Romanian sauropod dinosaurs reveals high titanosaur diversity and body-size disparity on the latest Cretaceous Haţeg Island, with implications for titanosaurian biogeography” by Verónica Díez Díaz, Philip D. Mannion, Zoltán Csiki-Sava and Paul Upchurch published in the Journal of Systematic Palaeontology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models and Toys.

A new study suggests that pterosaur anatomy could inspire the next generation of aeroplanes.  The microarchitecture of fossilised pterosaur bones could hold the key to lighter, stronger materials that can be used to make new types of aircraft.  This is the remarkable conclusion made by scientists from the University of Manchester.  Advanced and extremely powerful X-ray imaging techniques were utilised to reveal a complex network of microscopic canals inside the preserved bones of ancient flying reptiles.  These structures make the bones exceptionally light but incredibly strong.  They are ideal material properties for use in the aviation industry.

Pterosaur anatomy could inspire the next generation of aeroplane designs according to a new study. Picture credit: Nathan Pili, The University of Manchester.

Picture credit: Nathan Pili, The University of Manchester

Examining Pterosaur Anatomy at the Microscopic Level

The researchers claim that these pterosaur adaptations could have the potential to start a “palaeo-biomimetics” revolution using the biological designs of prehistoric creatures to develop new materials for use in the aeronautics industry. The paper has been published in the journal “Scientific Reports”.

Lead author of the study, Nathan Pili, a PhD student at the University of Manchester commented:

“For centuries, engineers have looked to nature for inspiration, like how the burrs from plants led to the invention of Velcro. But we rarely look back to extinct species when seeking inspiration for new engineering development, but we should. We are so excited to find and map these microscopic interlocking structures in pterosaur bones, we hope one day we can use them to reduce the weight of aircraft materials, thereby reducing fuel consumption and potentially making planes safer.”

Pterosaurs first evolved in the Triassic. They were close relatives of the dinosaurs and members of the Archosauria clade. Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to achieve powered flight. Whilst many Triassic and Jurassic taxa typically had wingspans of less than two metres, many Cretaceous pterosaurs were giants.

A model of the giant pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus.

The picture (above) shows a replica of the giant azhdarchid pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus. The figure is from the Wild Safari Prehistoric World range.

To view this range of prehistoric animal figures: Wild Safari Prehistoric World Figures.

Quetzalcoatlus lived during the Late Cretaceous and it had a wingspan of around ten metres. This huge size meant that these reptiles had to solve multiple engineering challenges to get their enormous bodies airborne.  For example, their huge wing membrane was supported predominantly from a single, elongated finger.

X-ray Computed Tomography

The researchers used advanced X-ray Computed Tomography (XCT) to scan the pterosaur anatomy at the molecular level.  The technique enabled the team to examine complex structures approximately twenty times smaller than the width of a human hair. Three-dimensional mapping of the internal structures permeating the wing bones of pterosaurs has never been achieved at these high resolutions (~0.002 mm).

The team discovered that the unique network of tiny canals and pores with the bones, once used for nutrient transfer, growth, and maintenance, also helped to protect against microfractures by deflecting cracks, serving both biological and mechanical functions. By replicating these natural designs, engineers could not only create lightweight, robust components but could also incorporate sensors and self-healing materials, opening up new possibilities for more complex and efficient aircraft designs.

The team propose that advancements in metal 3D printing could turn these ideas into reality.  Pterosaur anatomy could permit an exciting new avenue for further research.

Nathan Pilli added:

“This is an incredible field of research, especially when working at the microscopic scale. Of all the species that have ever lived, most are extinct, though many died out due to rapid environmental changes rather than ‘poor design’. These findings are pushing our team to generate even higher-resolution scans of additional extinct species. Who knows what hidden solutions we might find!”

Learning from Darwinian Natural Selection

Senior author of the study, Professor Phil Manning (University of Manchester), explained:

“There is over four billion years of experimental design that were a function of Darwinian natural selection. These natural solutions are beautifully reflected by the same iterative processes used by engineers to refine materials. It is highly likely that among the billions of permutations of life on Earth, unique engineering solutions have evolved but were lost to the sands of time. We hope to unlock the potential of ancient natural solutions to create new materials but also help build a more sustainable future. It is wonderful that life in the Jurassic might make flying in the 21st century more efficient and safer.”

We need to develop stronger, lighter and more fuel-efficient materials. Pterosaurs may hold the key to the future of powered flight.  By examining the first vertebrates to achieve powered flight we might be able to pave the way for a new generation of aviation technology.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Manchester in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Harnessing 3D microarchitecture of pterosaur bone using multi-scale X-ray CT for aerospace material design” published in Scientific Reports.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models and Figures.

Scientists have analysed the soft tissue preserved in a nearly complete Jurassic plesiosaur fossil. This is the first in-depth study of plesiosaur soft tissues to be published.  The study has been published in the journal “Current Biology”.  The research was led by scientists from Lund University (Sweden).  The results show that some plesiosaurs had smooth skin on the body and small scales on the flippers.  This integumentary covering permitted maximum swimming efficiency by reducing drag.  The scales on the flippers are reminiscent of modern reptile scales.  They may have played a role in flipper hydrodynamics and/or provided protection and traction as these marine reptiles moved across rough seabeds in search of food (benthic feeding).

Reconstruction of the new plesiosaur with scales on the flipper and smooth scale-less skin along the body as informed by this new plesiosaur fossil. This is a significant update to how we reconstruct plesiosaurs which has otherwise not change substantially since their initial discovery more than 200 years ago. Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe.

Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe

Studying a Remarkable Jurassic Plesiosaur

Plesiosaurs are an iconic group of Mesozoic marine reptiles with an evolutionary history spanning over 140 million years Their skeletal remains have been discovered worldwide. However, accompanying fossilised soft tissues are exceptionally rare. Only eight instances of plesiosaur soft tissue preservation have been reported to date. The research team examined a beautifully preserved fossil specimen from the Lower Jurassic Posidonia Shale (Posidonienschiefer Formation) of southern Germany.  The fossil is estimated to be around 183 million years old.  It dates from the Toarcian faunal stage of the Early Jurassic.

Skeleton of the new plesiosaur at the Urwelt-Museum Hauff in Holzmaden, Germany. Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff.

Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff

Until now, little was known about the external anatomy of plesiosaurs.  For example, considerable debate has occurred in regards to whether plesiosaurs had tail flukes, and if they did, what shape they were.  In 2021, CollectA introduced a replica of the Late Cretaceous derived plesiosaur Elasmosaurus.  This model had a diamond-shaped tail fluke.  In Everything Dinosaur’s video review of this figure, the controversy over the tail fluke was highlighted.

To read more about this and to view Everything Dinosaur’s video review: New for 2021 CollectA Figures Including a New Interpretation of Elasmosaurus.

The specimen (MH 7) was excavated from a quarry near the town of Holzmaden in 1940. More complete preparation undertaken in 2020 revealed traces of soft tissue preservation. The soft tissue was associated with the tail and the trailing edge of the right forelimb.

Skin from the bottom half of the tail in the new plesiosaur. The skin as preserved is beige in colour with some parts showing a pitted surface. This pitted surface represents the underside of the skin, with the outer surface facing into the rock matrix. Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff.

Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff

What Does Specimen MH 7 Reveal?

The scientists utilised a variety of techniques, including transmitted light microscopy (TLM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX), examining specimen MH 7 in unprecedented detail. In addition, the researchers used electron backscatter diffraction (EBSD), infrared (IR) microspectroscopy, and time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) to reveal details of the integumentary covering including the identification of potential melanosomes.

Their research indicates that plesiosaurs had both smooth and scaly skin.

The tip of the right flipper with two scales along the trailing edge. Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff.

Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff

Lead author of the study into this remarkable Jurassic plesiosaur fossil, Miguel Marx, a PhD student in geology at Lund University commented:

“Fossilised soft tissue, such as skin and internal organs, is exceptionally rare. We used a broad range of techniques to identify smooth skin in the tail region as well as scales along the rear edge of the flippers. This provided us with unparalleled insights into the appearance and biology of these long-extinct reptiles.”

Smooth and Scaly Skin

An unusual combination of smooth and scaly skin on different parts of the body was revealed.  The scientists conclude that this variation related to different functions.  For example, the plesiosaur needed to be streamlined so that it could swim efficiently.  Moreover, the smooth and hydrodynamic skin would have reduced drag and helped the animal to use less energy as it swam after prey.  However, it also needed to move across rough seafloors, the scaly flippers would have likely allowed it to do so with maximum efficiency and without damaging its skin.

Miguel Marx added:

“Our findings help us create more accurate life reconstructions of plesiosaurs, something that has been extremely difficult since they were first studied over 200 years ago. Also, the well-preserved German fossil really highlights the potential for soft tissue in providing valuable insights into the biology of these long-extinct animals.”

A close-up image of the two scales from the right flipper. Note the triangular shape of the scale remnants that are distinct from the skin found on the tail of this plesiosaur.
Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff.

Picture credit: Klaus Nilkens/Urwelt-Museum Hauff

Reconstructing the Appearance of an Ancient Marine Reptile

With a better understanding of the anatomy and adaptations of extinct creatures palaeontologists can develop an improved understanding of macroevolution.  Furthermore, in recreating the past, scientists can make better predictions about future events.

Summarising the importance of this study, Miguel Marx stated:

“Apart from the mosaic of smooth skin and scales, it was an incredible moment to visualize the cells in thin sections of the fossilized plesiosaur’s skin. I was shocked when I saw skin cells that had been preserved for 183 million years. It was almost like looking at modern skin.”

In addition to Lund University, collaborators from Uppsala University, RISE (Research Institutes of Sweden), Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld, and Urwelt-Museum Hauff took part in this research.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from Lund University in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Skin, scales, and cells in a Jurassic plesiosaur” by Miguel Marx, Peter Sjövall, Benjamin P. Kear, Martin Jarenmark, Mats E. Eriksson, Sven Sachs, Klaus Nilkens, Michiel Op De Beeck and Johan Lindgren published in Current Biology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Prehistoric Animals.

A newly published scientific paper demonstrates that an Edmontosaurus fossil contains collagen. The study confirms fossils can retain original organic materials.  The discovery of hydroxyproline, a unique collagen-indicator amino acid, in acid-digested samples resolves a long-standing debate amongst palaeontologists.  Identifying organic materials in dinosaur bones could provide a new perspective on the Dinosauria.

Reports of proteins in fossilised bones have been a subject of controversy in the scientific literature.  It is assumed that fossilisation results in the destruction of all organic components.  However, this new research adds weight to the theory that in exceptional circumstances traces of organic materials can persist for tens of millions of years.  Research led by scientists from the University of Liverpool suggests that Mesozoic fossils could still preserve remnants of original organic materials.

A view of the inside of the Edmontosaurus fossil bone. An exceptionally well-preserved Edmontosaurus sacrum excavated from the Upper Cretaceous strata of the South Dakota Hell Creek Formation is demonstrated to preserve evidence of hydroxyproline. Hydroxyproline is a unique collagen-indicator amino acid. Picture credit: University of Liverpool.

Picture credit: University of Liverpool

Edmontosaurus Fossil Contains Collagen

The research team used mass spectrometry and other advanced techniques to tease out traces of preserved collagen within the sacrum of an Edmontosaurus.  Edmontosaurus is a duck-billed dinosaur (family Hadrosauridae).  Fossils of these taxon come from Upper Cretaceous deposits of North America. It was a large, herbivorous dinosaur. Some specimens indicate a body length in excess of thirteen metres.

The CollectA Deluxe 1:40 scale Edmontosaurus dinosaur model. A detailed analysis of Edmontosaurus hip bone fossils (sacrum) reveals evidence of collagen.

The picture (above) shows a model of Edmontosaurus.  This figure is from the CollectA Deluxe series.

To view the range of CollectA Deluxe prehistoric animal models: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Animal Figures.

Writing in the journal “Analytical Chemistry” the researchers outline several techniques, including protein sequencing that led to the detection of collagen in the fossilised bone. The specimen (a sacrum), was excavated from Hell Creek Formation deposits located in South Dakota. It is part of the University of Liverpool’s collections and offered a unique opportunity for cutting-edge analyses.

The Implications of this Research

Commenting on the significance of this study, co-author Professor Steve Taylor (chair of the Mass Spectrometry Research Group at the University of Liverpool), stated:

“This research shows beyond doubt that organic biomolecules, such as proteins like collagen, appear to be present in some fossils. Our results have far-reaching implications. Firstly, it refutes the hypothesis that any organics found in fossils must result from contamination. Secondly, it suggests that cross-polarised light microscopy images of fossil bones, collected for a century, should be revisited. These images may reveal intact patches of bone collagen, potentially offering a ready-made trove of fossil candidates for further protein analysis. This could unlock new insights into dinosaurs. For example, revealing connections between dinosaur species that remain unknown. Lastly, the findings inform the intriguing mystery of how these proteins have managed to persist in fossils for so long.”

Researchers from the University of California were also involved in this study.  Mass spectrometry was used to detect and quantify, for the first time, the amino acid hydroxyproline, which is specific to collagen when found in bone, thus confirming the presence of decayed collagen.

Edmontosaurus fossil specimen used in collagen study. Picture credit: University of Liverpool.

Picture credit: University of Liverpool

The researchers conclude that their study demonstrated the presence of identical collagen peptide sequences previously discovered in another hadrosaur and a T. rex sample.

Links to Other Blog Posts

To read an article from 2017 about a study that identified fragments of collagen in the femur of a hadrosaur (Brachylophosaurus):Researchers Confirm the Presence of Dinosaur Collagen.

Traces of organic material discovered in a juvenile hadrosaur fossil: Has Dinosaur DNA Been Found?

Research from 2008 outlining the search for organic materials in a femur of Tyrannosaurus rex: Are You Going to Call the “Tyrant Lizard King” Chicken?

This newly published research opens further avenues for studying ancient life, offering a glimpse into the biochemical preservation of fossils of extinct creatures.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Liverpool in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Evidence for Endogenous Collagen in Edmontosaurus Fossil Bone” by Lucien Tuinstra, Brian Thomas, Steven Robinson, Krzysztof Pawlak, Gazmend Elezi, Kym Francis Faull, and Stephen Taylor published in Analytical Chemistry.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys and Models.

Researchers have described a new theropod dinosaur from the Cerro del Pueblo Formation (Coahuila, northern Mexico).  The dinosaur has been named Mexidracon longimanus.  It is the first ornithomimid to be named from fossils associated with the Cerro del Pueblo Formation. The most conspicuous characteristics of this new taxon are the exceptionally long metacarpal bones.  These are the bones that form the palm of the hand.  The hands of Mexidracon longimanus were long and slender.  Furthermore, the hands were longer than the humerus (upper arm bone).  It is not known what these slender hands were used for, although it has been speculated that they helped this toothless dinosaur forage for food.

A scale drawing of the newly described ornithomimid dinosaur from the Cerro del Pueblo Formation (Mexico). Although known from only fragmentary remains it is thought this dinosaur was feathered. It is estimated to have stood around one metre tall and measured two and half metres long. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Mexidracon longimanus – the first ornithomimid formally described from Coahuila

In 2014, Professor Claudio de León-Dávila collected postcranial ornithomimid remains from a deposit representing an estuary environment.  These fossils are currently housed in the collection of the Benemérita Escuela Normal de Coahuila (BENC), a teacher training institution in Coahuila state. Ornithomimosaur remains are relatively common in the Campanian Cerro del Pueblo Formation, although most of the material is highly fragmentary.

To date only one other ornithomimosaur has been described from the region. Paraxenisaurus normalensis was scientifically described in 2020 (Serrano-Brañas et al).  It is represented by elements from the hands, limbs, including the distal end of a femur, and caudal vertebrae.  P. normalensis is thought to be much larger than the newly described Mexidracon.  Moreover, it has been tentatively assigned to the Deinocheiridae family within the Ornithomimosauria clade. Whereas, Mexidracon longimanus has been assigned to another family, the Ornithomimidae.

A model of Deinocheirus.  The figure is from the CollectA Age of Dinosaurs Popular range.

The image (above) shows the CollectA Age of Dinosaurs Popular Deinocheirus figure.  It is thought that Paraxenisaurus normalensis may have been related to this Asian deinocheirid.

To view the CollectA Age of Dinosaurs Popular range available from Everything Dinosaur: CollectA Prehistoric Animal Models.

The Etymology of a Dinosaur Name

The genus name is derived from the prefix “Mexi”, a reference to Mexico and the suffix “dracon”.  This is from the Greek, and it means serpent or dragon.  The species or trivial name translates as “long hands”.  So, this new theropod’s name translates as “long-handed Mexican dragon.”

The researchers conclude that the discovery of the first ornithomimid in this region of Mexico suggests that during the Campanian faunal stage of the Cretaceous there was a large number of different ornithomimosaurs present.

The scientific paper: “A long-handed new ornithomimid dinosaur from the Campanian (Upper Cretaceous) Cerro del Pueblo Formation, Coahuila, Mexico” by Claudia Inés Serrano-Brañas, Belinda Espinosa-Chávez, Claudio de León-Dávila, S. Augusta Maccracken, Daniela Barrera-Guevara, Esperanza Torres-Rodríguez and Albert Prieto-Márquez published in Cretaceous Research.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys.

A fossilised cervical vertebra from a pterosaur preserves a bite mark from a crocodilian.  The neck bone was discovered during an international field course in the famous Dinosaur Provincial Park Formation (Alberta, Canada), that took place in July 2023.  The course was led by Dr Brian Pickles from the University of Reading.  The fossil bone preserves a four-millimetre-wide puncture mark from a crocodilian tooth.  The punctured vertebra probably represents a bone from a juvenile Cryodrakon boreas.

The juvenile Cryodrakon boreas neck bone (bottom right) with an adult neck bone (top). Picture credit: University of Reading.

Picture credit: University of Reading

The researchers estimate that this animal had a wingspan of around two metres.  However, much larger pterosaur bones from the Dinosaur Park Formation suggest that a fully-grown Cryodrakon could have rivalled Quetzalcoatlus in size.  Indeed, when azhdarchid pterosaur bones were first discovered in this formation, the material was tentatively assigned to Quetzalcoatlus spp.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s blog post from 2019 about the discovery of Cryodrakon boreas: The First Pterosaur Unique to Canada.

A Juvenile Cryodrakon boreas

The study was undertaken by researchers from the Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology (Alberta), the University of Reading (UK) and the University of New England (Australia). The paper has been published today.  The circular nature of the bite mark and other aspects of its morphology indicate that it was made by a crocodilian tooth.  It is not known whether this is evidence of predation or whether the crocodilian scavenged a pterosaur carcase.  However, it is remarkable evidence of predator/prey dynamics dating from the Late Cretaceous.

Lead author of the paper, Dr Caleb Brown (Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology), commented:

“Pterosaur bones are very delicate – so finding fossils where another animal has clearly taken a bite is exceptionally uncommon. This specimen being a juvenile makes it even more rare.”

Research team members working at the quarry where the juvenile Cryodrakon boreas cervical vertebra was found. Picture credit: University of Reading.

Picture credit: University of Reading

Fossils from this strata date from the Campanian faunal stage of the Late Cretaceous.  This young pterosaur lived approximately seventy-six million years ago.

Comparing Pterosaur Bones and Using Micro-CT Scans

The scientists compared the single vertebra with other pterosaur bones to confirm that the puncture did indeed represent pathology.  Evidence of an actual bite into the bone.  Micro-CT scans were employed to permit a much more detailed analysis of the puncture wound.

Co-author Dr Brian Pickles (University of Reading) explained:

“Bite traces help to document species interactions from this period. We can’t say if the pterosaur was alive or dead when it was bitten but the specimen shows that crocodilians occasionally preyed on, or scavenged, juvenile pterosaurs in prehistoric Alberta over 70 million years ago.”

This is the first documented evidence from North America of ancient crocodilians opportunistically feeding on pterosaurs.  Azhdarchid bones with possible crocodilian bites have previously been recorded in Romania.

A researcher carefully brushes away debris from a fossil bone at a quarry located in the Dinosaur Provincial Park Formation. Picture credit: University of Reading.

Picture credit: University of Reading

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Reading in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A juvenile pterosaur vertebra with putative crocodilian bite from the Campanian of Alberta, Canada” by Caleb M. Brown, Phil R. Bell, Holly Owers and Brian J. Pickles published in the Journal of Palaeontology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Pterosaurs and Dinosaurs.

A newly published scientific paper outlining the latest Rhamphorhynchus research has solved a mystery about pterosaur flight.  Pterosaurs were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight.  Thanks to this new study, an evolutionary puzzle relating to how pterosaurs flew has been solved.  Controlled powered flight was achieved with the aid of a lattice-like vane on the tip of the tail of many types of early flying reptile.  The diamond-shaped vane consisted of interwoven membranes.  This prevented their long tails fluttering like flags in the wind.  These structures helped to stabilise these creatures in flight and may have aided steering.

A rhamphorhynchine pterosaur illustration. The diamond-shaped tail vane was made from interwoven membranes, and this played a key role in flight stability. Picture credit: Natalia Jagielska.

Picture credit: Natalia Jagielska

Previous research revealed that maintaining stiffness in the tail vane was crucial to enable early pterosaur’s flight.  How exactly this was achieved remained unknown. However, this new research, published in eLife, has provided fresh data on pterosaur anatomy.  This in turn, permitted this puzzle about the flight of pterosaurs to be resolved.

The study was led by palaeontologists from the University of Edinburgh.  The researchers discovered that the tail vane probably behaved like a sail on a ship.  It became tense as the wind blew through the cross-linked membranes thus allowing these reptiles to steer themselves through the sky.

An illustration of a pterosaur.  Note the diamond-shaped tail vane. Rhamphorhynchus research has solved a mystery about pterosaur flight. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Rhamphorhynchus Research

The hollow bones of pterosaurs have poor fossil preservation potential.  However, thanks to the remarkable fossils from famous Lagerstätten such as the pterosaur material from Solnhofen in Germany, scientists have numerous, early non-pterodactyloid specimens to study.  Many of the most complete and best-preserved specimens represent Rhamphorhynchus muensteri.  Some of these fossils are preserved in three-dimensions and also include traces of soft tissue such as skin and flight membranes.

Recently, Everything Dinosaur reported upon the study of a giant Rhamphorhynchus: Rhamphorhynchus and Ontogenetic Niche Partitioning.

The scientists used a sophisticated research technique called Laser Simulated Fluorescence (LSF).  Exposing fossils to this intense light causes organic tissues almost invisible to the naked eye to glow.  The researchers were able to observe the delicate internal structures of the Rhamphorhynchus tail vane.  This provided the team with fresh insights into pterosaur anatomy and evolution.

Wild Safari Dinos Rhamphorhynchus figure. A typical non-pterodactyloid pterosaur.

The image (above) shows a replica of Rhamphorhynchus.  This pterosaur model is part of the Wild Safari Prehistoric World model range.

To view this range of prehistoric animal figures: Wild Safari Prehistoric World Figures.

Universities Collaborating with Museums

The research involved scientists from the University of Edinburgh and the Chinese University of Hong Kong in collaboration with the National Museum of Scotland, Edinburgh and the London Natural History Museum. It was funded by the Natural Environment Research Council (NERC).

Lead author of the study Dr Natalia Jagielska a PhD graduate from the University of Edinburgh stated:

“It never ceases to astound me that, despite the passing of hundreds of millions of years, we can put skin on the bone of animals we will never see in our lifetimes.”

Thinking of a practical implication for this research, Dr Jagielska added:

“Pterosaurs were wholly unique animals with no modern equivalents, with a huge elastic membrane stretching from their ankle to the tip of the hyper-elongated fourth finger. For all we know, figuring out how pterosaur membranes worked, may inspire new aircraft technologies.”

This newly published research provides a fascinating glimpse into early pterosaur evolution.  The tail vane was a critical structure that helped these amazing creatures dominate the skies.  However, later pterosaurs had much reduced tails and lost their tail vanes.  This opens up new lines of enquiry into the evolution of the Pterosauria.

Dr Nick Fraser, (Keeper of Natural Sciences, National Museums Scotland), said:

“Without the researchers’ vision to apply new technology to apparently well-understood fossils, this tail vane would have remained in the dark. It is exciting to now see a critical feature of the pterosaur’s anatomy so beautifully displayed.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Edinburgh in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “New soft tissue data of pterosaur tail vane reveals sophisticated, dynamic tensioning usage and expands its evolutionary origins” by Natalia Jagielska, Thomas G Kaye, Michael B Habib, Tatsuya Hirasawa and Michael Pittman published in eLife.

Visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Pterosaur Models and Toys.

Newly published research demonstrates that the super-sized canines of sabre-toothed predators were “optimal” for biting into prey.  Oversized canines have evolved on several occasions within tetrapods.  Perhaps, the most famous example are the sabre-toothed cats, such as Smilodon.  There have been numerous studies into the efficiency of Smilodon teeth.  This new study, published in the journal “Current Biology”, reveals why these canines were “functionally optimal” and highly effective at puncturing prey.

The Rebor Smilodon populator 1/11th scale figure posed with its mouth open. A beautiful replica of a Sabre-toothed cat.  A newly published study (January, 2025), highlights the efficiency of the large canines for puncturing prey. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows the Rebor Smilodon populator scale model.   This model is in the “jungle” colour scheme.  The figure possesses the huge sabre-teeth associated with this big cat.  The Smilodon teeth in this figure have been beautifully crafted.

To see the range of Rebor models and figures in stock at Everything Dinosaur: Rebor Figures and Models.

Studying Smilodon Teeth and the Evolution of Sabre-teeth

The research was led by scientists at the University of Bristol in collaboration with Monash University (Melbourne, Australia).  The study demonstrates that the long, sharp blade-like teeth gave sabre-toothed predators a significant advantage when it came to capturing and subduing prey.

The findings help to explain why sabre-teeth are seen so frequently in the fossil record.  This specialist dentition has evolved independently at least five times in the Mammalia.  In 2020, Everything Dinosaur team members wrote about a research paper that explored sabre-tooth hunting methods.

To read our article about this research: Sabre-toothed Predators Evolved Different Hunting Styles.

Big-toothed predator. The skull of a Smilodon fatalis (La Brea tar pits). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

A Possible Explanation for the Extinction of Sabre-toothed Predators

The researchers propose a possible explanation for the demise of sabre-toothed predators. Their increasing specialisation may have acted as an “evolutionary ratchet”.  They became highly efficient hunters. However, with their specialised teeth, they were more vulnerable to extinction when ecosystems changed and their prey became scarce.

The team, set out to test whether sabre-tooth shape was an optimal balance between two competing needs: sharp and slender enough to effectively puncture prey and blunt and robust enough to resist breaking. Using 3D-printed steel tooth replicas in a series of biting experiments and advanced computer simulations, the researchers analysed the shape and performance of ninety-five different carnivorous mammal teeth, including twenty-five sabre-toothed species.

Functional optimality drives the repeated evolution of extreme sabre-tooth forms. Picture credit: Dr Tahlia Pollock.

Picture credit: Dr Tahlia Pollock

Lead author of the research, Dr Tahlia Pollock from the University of Bristol explained:

“Our study helps us better understand how extreme adaptations evolve – not just in sabre-toothed predators but across nature. By combining biomechanics and evolutionary theory, we can uncover how natural selection shapes animals to perform specific tasks.”

“Dirk-toothed” and “Scimitar-toothed” Predators

This research challenged a presumption about Smilodon teeth and the dentition of sabre-toothed hunters.  Previously, scientists had grouped the canines of sabre-toothed predators into two, broad categories (ecomorphs).

These two categories are:

• “Dirk-toothed” – long, straight canines.
• “Scimitar-toothed” long, canines that have a greater curvature.

Instead, this study uncovered a spectrum of sabre-tooth shapes, from the long, curved teeth of the false sabre-toothed cat Barbourofelis fricki to the straighter, more robust teeth of the machairodont Dinofelis barlowi. This supports a growing body of research suggesting a greater diversity of hunting strategies among these predators than previously thought.

The research team hope to develop their research programme by including all tooth types. Their aim will be to explore the biomechanical trade-offs that shaped the evolution of diverse dentition across the animal kingdom.

Co-author Professor Alistair Evans (Monash University) added:

“The findings not only deepen our understanding of sabre-toothed predators but also have broader implications for evolutionary biology and biomechanics. Insights from this research could even help inform bioinspired designs in engineering.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Functional optimality underpins the repeated evolution of the extreme ‘sabre-tooth’ morphology”  by Tahlia I. Pollock, William J. Deakin, Narimane Chatar, Pablo S. Milla Carmona, Douglass S. Rovinsky, Olga Panagiotopoulou, William M.G. Parker, Justin W. Adams, David P. Hocking, Philip C. J. Donoghue, Emily J. Rayfield and Alistair R. Evans published in Current Biology.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists have described in detail a Rhamphorhynchus fossil from the famous Solnhofen deposits of Germany.  Most Solnhofen pterosaur fossils are pancaked, but specimen number NHMUK PV OR 37002 has been preserved in three dimensions.  This has permitted the researchers to assess how Rhamphorhynchus changed as it grew.  The fossil represents an extremely large individual. It had an estimated wingspan of approximately 1.8 metres.  When this fossil was studied over a hundred years ago, it was thought to represent a new species.  It was named Rhamphorhynchus longiceps (Woodward, 1902). However, the fossil material is now thought to represent an extremely mature Rhamphorhynchus muensteri.

The Largest Rhamphorhynchus Known to Science

The fossil material represents the largest known specimen of Rhamphorhynchus. It is exceptionally important due to the completeness of the specimen and its excellent state of preservation. In addition, as it represents the remains of a large, mature adult it can help palaeontologists to gain a better understanding of the growth of non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs, especially at upper sizes.

Furthermore, the specimen exhibits unusually flattened teeth. This suggests a change in diet for these flying reptiles as they matured.

Specimen NHMUK PV OR 37002 represents an exceptionally large and mature adult Rhamphorhynchus muensteri from the Eichstätt locality of Solnhofen. Counterplates and separate plate containing caudal series attached to the main plate are outlined in red. cdv, caudal vertebrae on separate plate and counterplate attached to main plate; hu, humerus; lwpx1, left wing phalanx 1; lwpx2, left wing phalanx 2; lwpx3, left wing phalanx 3 on counterplate; lwpx4, left wing phalanx 4 on counterplate; olwpx2, outline of left wing phalanx 2 on counterplate; olwpx3, outline of left wing phalanx 3; olwpx4, outline of left wing phalanx 4; orwpx3, outline of right wing phalanx 3; orwpx4, outline of right wing phalanx 4; orpes, outline of right pes; rad/uln, radius and ulna; rpes, right pes on counterplate; rwpx2, right wing phalanx 2; rwpx4, right wing phalanx 4 on counterplate. Note scale is 5 cm. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Studying the Rhamphorhynchus muensteri Specimen

Rhamphorhynchus is one of the most extensively studied pterosaurs.  There are over a hundred specimens in museum collections.  Most of these were sourced from the remarkable Solnhofen deposits in the German state of Bavaria. The vast majority of these specimens represent juveniles and even those fossils thought to represent adults typically have a wingspan of no more than a metre. NHMUK PV OR 37002 represents a giant rhamphorhynchine. It is also amongst the largest non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs known, and certainly the most complete specimen of an animal in excess of 1.5 m in wingspan. This Rhamphorhynchus fossil helps support the theory that some pterosaur taxa in the Jurassic were capable of reaching large sizes.

Moreover, this specimen displays anatomical differences not observed in smaller individuals, providing insights into the late-stage development of this genus.

Size comparison of different Rhamphorhynchus muensteri specimens: (anti-clockwise from top left) A – the smallest known BMMS A3 (21 mm skull length), a generalised ‘typical adult’ specimen C (122 mm skull length), D the second largest known GPIT RE/7321 (150 mm skull length) and B, the largest known NHMUK PV OR 37002 (201 mm skull length). Note scale is 1 metre. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Ontogenetic Niche Partitioning

The study has been published in the open-access journal “PeerJ”.  The researchers identified several changes in the anatomy of Rhamphorhynchus as it grew and matured. For example, analysis of the skull demonstrated a significant reduction in the size of the eye socket and an increase in the size of the temporal fenestra.  In addition, it was noted that NHMUK PV OR 37002 had flattened teeth, very different from the needle-like teeth found in juveniles.

Skulls of specimens of Rhamphorhynchus muensteri at different sizes. Top to bottom: (A) BSPG 1889 XI 1 (‘Exemplar 7’, skull length 35 mm per Wellnhofer, 1975), scale bar 25 mm; (B) YPM VP 1778 (‘Exemplar 33’ of Wellnhofer, skull length 90 mm, measured by SNM using ImageJ), scale bar 35 mm; (C) GPIT RE/7321 (‘Exemplar 81’, skull length 150 mm per Wellnhofer, 1975, illustration mirrored and partially adapted from Wellnhofer, 1975), scale bar 50 mm; (D) NHMUK PV OR 37002, skull length 201 mm. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

Picture credit: Hone and McDavid.

These characteristics illustrate a developmental transition from smaller to larger Rhamphorhynchus specimens and align with similar traits found in other large rhamphorhynchines, indicating a consistent pattern in their growth.

This would also then point to ontogenetic niche partitioning with adults and juveniles targeting different prey items. Ontogenetic niche partitioning refers to the process by which individuals of the same species or closely related species exploit different resources or habitats at different stages of their development (ontogeny).  The authors of the paper propose a dietary shift for Rhamphorhynchus as it grew and matured.  Rhamphorhynchus juveniles may have been mostly insectivorous.  As these pterosaurs grew, they become piscivorous.  The largest individuals may have shifted to other prey, or to different prey types.

Are Modern Gulls an Analogue?

Rhamphorhynchines may have moved inland as they grew and matured. Whilst still tied to water bodies, they may have become more generalist feeders.  A modern-day analogue could be gulls (Laridae).  Many types of gull prefer marine or at least aquatic systems but are capable of foraging successfully in more terrestrial systems.  If the biggest rhamphorhynchines lived inland, this might explain their absence from the fossil record.  All things being equal, a pterosaur in a marine environment probably has a great fossil preservation potential than for example, a flying reptile that lived on an inland plain.

Skull of Rhamphorhynchus muensteri NHMUK PV OR 37002 in near lateral view showing the 3D nature of the specimen (A) and restoration of the cranium and mandible in right lateral view (B). Preserved bone and teeth are in white, obscured or reconstructed portions are in grey. Note the skull has no visible sutures indicating a fully mature, adult animal. Scale is 5 cm. Picture credit: Hone and McDavid and University College London.

Large Non-pterodactyloid Pterosaurs of the Jurassic

With a wingspan estimated at around 1.8 metres, the pterosaur fossil at the centre of this new research represents one of the largest non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs of the Jurassic.  Pterodactyloids are thought to have evolved in the Jurassic and this suborder includes the biggest flying vertebrates of all time.  For example, the Azhdarchidae, the Ornithocheiridae and Late Cretaceous giants such as Pteranodon longiceps.

In the summer of 2024, we wrote an article about a pterosaur humerus found in Oxfordshire that suggested a Jurassic pterodactyloid with a wingspan in excess of three metres.

To read this article: A Giant Oxfordshire Pterosaur.

Rhamphorhynchus is a member of a more basal group of pterosaurs, although the phylogeny of the Pterosauria remains controversial.  Although, non-pterodactyloid pterosaurs did not reach the enormous size of some later pterosaurs, there is some evidence to indicate that some taxa may have had a wingspan in excess of one and a half metres.  For example, when the rhamphorhynchid Dearc sgiathanach was described in 2022 (Jagielska et al), its wingspan was thought to be greater than two metres. However, the size of D. sgiathanach remains uncertain.

A scale drawing of the large Jurassic pterosaur Dearc sgiathanach commissioned by Everything Dinosaur for a Dearc fact sheet. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The image above shows a scale drawing of the Middle Jurassic rhamphorhynchine Dearc sgiathanach, although the size of this pterosaur remains uncertain.  The drawing was commissioned for a fact sheet that accompanied sales of the CollectA Deluxe Dearc figure.

To view the range of CollectA Deluxe prehistoric animal models: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Life Models.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of Dr David Hone (Queen Mary University of London) in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A giant specimen of Rhamphorhynchus muensteri and comments on the ontogeny of rhamphorhynchines” by David W. E. Hone and Skye N. McDavid published in PeerJ.