Locomotion in the Sauropoda is hotly debated by palaeontologists.  Some of these leviathans grew to enormous sizes. Once thought to have been semi-aquatic, scientists have a better understanding of their anatomy, and most academics concur that these reptiles were well-adapted to a terrestrial existence. How these animals moved their enormous bulk has been the subject of numerous scientific papers.  In a new study, researchers have examined the caudal vertebrae of the giant Giraffatitan brancai to gain a better understanding of tail mobility.  This research, published in the journal “Royal Society Open Science” provides fresh insights into the biomechanical properties of one of the largest dinosaurs known to science.

The study analysed eighteen preserved tail vertebrae from a nearly complete tail of Giraffatitan brancai.  Excavated from Upper Jurassic deposits in Tanzania, these fossils are in the collection at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin.

A model of Giraffatitan brancai. The W-Dragon Giraffatitan Compared to a Papo standing T. rex dinosaur model. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The tails of archosaurs are important.  They have a biomechanical function and assist with movement.  In addition, they function as behavioural tools helping animals to communicate and interact with their environment. Until recently, tails have been neglected in biomechanical analyses and were considered as a stiff (sometimes independent) unit. However, the tail’s role in movement is now increasingly being appreciated.

Testing the Movement of Individual Giraffatitan brancai Caudal Vertebrae

New kinematic programmes were used to test the movement of the individual caudal vertebra in relation to each other. The scientists wanted to explain the impact of forces on the muscles.  Furthermore, they wanted to pinpoint areas of muscle attachment on the tail bones.  From this, they set out to determine the mobility and movement of the dinosaur.

Corresponding author, Dr. Verónica Díez Díaz (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin), explained:

“Our analyses show that the tail of Giraffatitan was much more mobile and functionally versatile than previously assumed.”

A detailed analysis of the so-called haemal arches was undertaken.  These haemal arches are bony structures on the underside of the tail vertebrae. They were often overlooked in earlier studies.  In this new study, the researchers conclude that these elements had a significant influence on the mobility of the tail.

Diagram of specimen number MB.R.2921 caudal series of G. brancai, left, with (green) intervertebral discs between vertebrae. Colour coded computer model (right) testing the flexibility of the caudal vertebrae. Picture credit: Díez Díaz et al.

Picture credit: Díez Díaz et al

Employing Sophisticated Computer Models

The use of sophisticated computer models confirm that the Giraffatitan exhibit at the Berlin Natural History Museum is accurate.  Sauropods did not drag their tails behind them like crocodilians.  Instead, the carried their tails raised off the ground. Furthermore, Giraffatitan could move its tail flexibly in several directions.

This study provides new information on the posture, movement and possibly the social interactions of these massive dinosaurs. The study not only offers new perspectives on the anatomy of macronarian sauropods, it also provides valuable impetus for future reconstructions and palaeobiological interpretations.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Centres of rotation and osteological constraints on caudal ranges of motion in the sauropod dinosaur Giraffatitan brancai” by Verónica Díez Díaz, Pasha A. van Bijlert, William Irvin Sellers, Mathew J. Wedel and Daniela Schwarz published in Royal Society Open Science.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Models and Figures.

A new species of Early Jurassic plesiosaur has been named based on a detailed examination of an almost complete fossil specimen discovered nearly fifty years ago.  The articulated specimen represents a skeletally immature individual, and it has been named Plesionectes longicollum.  Writing in the open-access journal PeerJ, the researchers identified several unique anatomical features of the fossil that permitted the erection of a new taxon. For instance, this plesiosaur had an exceptionally long neck.  At least forty-three cervical vertebrae have been identified.  The count hampered by the poor state of preservation of the skull.

The fossil material had been studied previously. For example, evidence of soft tissue preservation had been identified on the neck, tail and rear limbs. In addition, V-shaped neurocentral sutures have been identified.  Furthermore, this animal had between twenty and twenty-one dorsal vertebrae, one of the highest counts known among Lower Jurassic plesiosaurs.

Moreover, the fossil was excavated from a different horizon from the famous oil shales exposed near to Holzmaden. It is much older than other plesiosaurs known from the Posidonia Shale (Posidonienschiefer Formation). The remains of this marine reptile are thought to be around 183 million years old.

Plesionectes longicollum life reconstruction. Picture credit: Peter Nickolaus.

Picture credit: Peter Nickolaus

Plesionectes longicollum

Researcher Sven Sachs (Naturkunde-Museum Bielefeld, Germany) in collaboration with his colleague Daniel Madzia from the Polish Academy of Sciences, conducted the first detailed osteological examination of the fossil material.  This fossil is surprisingly large compared to other plesiosaurs known from the Posidonia Shale. It measures approximately 2.95 metres long, but when the head is included, this marine reptile would have measured around 3.2 metres in length.

The genus name derives from the Greek for “close” or “near”, referring to its plesiosaur affinities, and the Greek word for “swimmer” a common suffix in plesiosaur taxon nomenclature. The species name derives from the Latin and means “long neck”.

To read a recent blog post about examination of soft tissue preservation in a plesiosaur from the Posidonia Shale: Lower Jurassic Plesiosaur Soft Tissue is Examined.

The Plesionectes longicollum holotype (SMNS 51945). Patches of soft tissue have been preserved around the neck, tail, and hindlimb. This marine reptile is thought to have measured around 3.2 metres in length. Picture credit: Sven Sachs.

Picture credit: Sven Sachs

Discovered in 1978

The fossil material was found in 1978. It was discovered by Gotthilf Fischer in his own quarry in Holzmaden. The specimen was prepared by its discoverer and in 1979 it was acquired by the Staatliches Museum für Naturkunde (Stuttgart).

In personal correspondence with Everything Dinosaur, researcher Sven Sachs outlined the direction of his future studies. He intends to commence a reassessment of the famous genus Plesiosaurus.

Sven commented:

“It will surely take a few years to visit all the collections where Plesiosaurus material is housed, to analyse the data, and to write it all up, but this will be a fun project as it is such an iconic taxon.”

A close view of the posterior cervical vertebrae of Plesionectes longicollum. This early-diverging plesiosauroid from the Lower Jurassic Posidonia Shale of Holzmaden, Germany had at least 43 neck bones. Picture credit: Sven Sachs.

Picture credit: Sven Sachs

In summary, this newly described species helps to define the remarkable diversity of Lower Jurassic plesiosauroids known from Germany.  In addition, it invites renewed examination of specimens in museum collections.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of one of the study’s authors in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “An unusual early-diverging plesiosauroid from the Lower Jurassic Posidonia Shale of Holzmaden, Germany” by Sven Sachs and Daniel Madzia published in PeerJ.

A team of international researchers have named a new species of Permian archosauromorph based on a single neck bone.  The animal has been named Manistropheus kulicki.  It provides new insights into the early evolution of archosauromorphs, a clade that includes the crocodiles, birds, pterosaurs and dinosaurs.  The cervical vertebra was discovered last century, but it has only just been scientifically described.  It was found at the famous Korbacher Spalte site in central Germany.  A fissure preserves the fragmentary and isolated remains of many Late Permian vertebrates.  The sediments are believed to around 255 million years old.

The Korbacher Spalte locality is important because it preserves evidence of tetrapods prior to the mass extinction event at the Permian-Triassic boundary.

The holotype of Manistropheus kulicki (SMNK-PAL 76022) shown in left lateral view. Picture credit: Carola Radke.

Picture credit: Carola Radke

Korbacher Spalte

The Korbacher locality is particularly well known for its many finds of the early mammal ancestor, a cynodont called Procynosuchus.  This synapsis is also jokingly referred to as the “Korbach dachshund” because of its appearance. However, scientists have now described a previously unknown species of archosauromorph reptile based on a single, well-preserved cervical vertebra. Distinctive characteristics of the fossil bone enabled the team to erect a new genus and species – Manistropheus kulicki.

Manistropheus kulicki Cervical Vertebra

The vertebra is characterised by an elongated, diamond-shaped centre and a crescent-shaped indentation on the side of the front edge of the vertebra. This gives the new genus its name – from the Old Norse Máni, the personification of the moon in Germanic mythology, and the Greek “stropheus,” meaning vertebra. Overall, the specimen shows similarities to early archosauromorphs but also shows features that are absent in other reptiles of that time. A comprehensive study of the phylogenetic relationships suggests that M. kulicki stands at the base of this important reptile lineage.  It is thought to be a basal archosauromorph.

The study also used an analysis of morphological diversity to investigate how cervical vertebrae have changed over the course of Earth’s history. The results suggest that archosauromorphs were already morphologically diverse before their extinction and that their cervical anatomy diversified rapidly in the Early Triassic.  Cervical vertebrae anatomy changed faster than other parts of the skeleton.

Lead author of the study, Dr Martín Ezcurra (CONICET) stated:

“This discovery is particularly significant because Permian archosauromorphs are extremely rare, with only five fossil species from this period known to date. Thanks to Manistropheus kulicki, we can see how diverse this group already was before the mass extinction.”

Co-author Professor Hans-Dieter Sues (Smithsonian Institute), added:

“This fossil not only proves the existence of a new species, but also supports the assumption that there was already a previously hidden diversity of archosauromorphs in the Permian period.”

Diverse Archosauromorphs Present in Equatorial Regions During the Late Permian

Professor Jörg Fröbisch (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin), another co-author of the study, highlighted the significance of the Korbach Spalte site.

He commented:

“The Korbach fissure site is proving to be a key location for better understanding life on land in the tropical regions of the supercontinent Pangaea shortly before the largest mass extinction in Earth’s history. “

The naming of this basal archosauromorph from Germany highlights the importance of continuing to explore lesser-known fossil sites.  It is especially important to explore fossil sites that provide insights into ancient ecosystems threatened with extinction.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A new late Permian archosauromorph reptile from Germany enhances our understanding of the early diversity of the clade” by Martín D. Ezcurra, Hans-Dieter Sues and Jörg Fröbisch published in the Journal of Systematic Palaeontology.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.

Stunning fossils of Cambrian nectocaridids solves a half-a-billion-year-old evolutionary puzzle.  Fossil material excavated from the Sirius Passet site in North Greenland has enabled palaeontologists to identify these ancient marine invertebrates as early descendants of chaetognaths (arrow worms).  It had been proposed that these animals were a type of cephalopod.  Cephalopods are marine molluscs with tentacles and a prominent head.  Living cephalopods include cuttlefish, octopi and squid.  The extinct ammonites and belemnites were cephalopods.

This significant discovery rewrites part of the story of the Cambrian Explosion. It shows arrow worms descended from complex predators, not simple marine organisms.

Life reconstruction of Nektognathus, swimming in the Cambrian Sea. It is depicted as a nektonic predator. Picture credit: Bob Nicholls.

Picture credit: Bob Nicholls

The illustration of Cambrian life (above) was created by acclaimed palaeo-reconstruction artist Bob Nicholls.  Bob has recently been collaborating with Everything Dinosaur in the production of museum quality prehistoric animal models – Everything Dinosaur Evolution.

To learn more about these remarkable, scientifically accurate figures: Everything Dinosaur Evolution Figures.

Studying Cambrian Nectocaridids

The research team included palaeontologists from the University of Bristol, the University of Copenhagen, and the Korean Polar Research Institute. Their work builds on nine years of expeditions to Sirius Passet, a site famous for exceptional soft-tissue fossil preservation from 518 million years ago (Stage 3 of the Cambrian).

Co-author of the study, Dr Jakob Vinther, Associate Professor in Macroevolution at the University of Bristol commented:

“Sirius Passet is a treasure trove of fossils from the Cambrian Explosion. We not only find delicate soft-bodied fossils but also their digestive systems, musculature and sometimes even their nervous system.”

Research first published in 2009 examining fossils from the famous Burgess Shale deposits of British Columbia (Canada), linked nectocaridids to cephalopods.  However, some invertebrate palaeontologists remained sceptical.

Dr Vinther explained:

“Around 15 years ago a research paper, based on fossils from the famous Burgess Shale, claimed nectocaridids were cephalopods. It never really made sense to me, as the hypothesis would upend everything we otherwise know about cephalopods and their anatomy didn’t closely match cephalopods when you looked carefully.”

Field team members became excited as they found twenty-five new specimens of Cambrian nectocaridids in the Sirius Passet deposits. These are the first nectocaridids unearthed from the Sirius Passet locality. Evidence of nervous systems were preserved in some specimens.

A fossil specimen of Nektognathus discovered at Sirius Passet (northern Greenland). Picture credit: University of Bristol.

Picture credit: University of Bristol

Identifying the Ventral Ganglion

The team discovered nectocaridids with parts of their nervous system preserved as paired mineralised structures.  This new evidence helped to confirm the phylogeny of these ancient animals. Arrow worm fossils with preserved ventral ganglia – a unique nerve structure seen in modern chaetognaths (arrow worms) were also found.

Co-author of the paper, Dr Tae-Yoon Park from the Korean Polar Institute stated:

“These fossils all preserve a unique feature, distinct for arrow worms, called the ventral ganglion.”

The discovery of this structure confirms the evolutionary link between nectocaridids and arrow worms.

The holotype specimen of Nektognathus from Sirius Passet. Picture credit: Tae-Yoon Park.

Picture credit: Tae-Yoon Park

The authors of the study have erected a new nectocaridid taxon Nektognathus evasmithae. The species name honours Professor Eva Smith, the first female professor of law in Denmark and renowned human rights advocate. Dr Vinther commented that N. evasmithae was a smart and stealthy fighter, just like the Danish advocate.

Dr Park added:

“We now had a smoking gun to resolve the nectocaridid controversy. Nectocaridids share a number of features with some of the other fossils that also belong to the arrow worm stem lineage. Many of these features are superficially squid-like and reflect simple adaptations to an active swimming mode of life in invertebrates, just like whales and ancient marine reptiles end up looking like fish when they evolve such a mode of life.”

The holotype specimen of Nektognathus from Sirius Passet imaged with Electron Probe microanalysis for its carbon content. Picture credit: Mirinae Lee and Chankun Park.

Picture credit: Mirinae Lee and Chankun Park

Cambrian Nectocaridids – Dynamic, Nektonic, Agile Predators

This surprising discovery means the rather simple marine arrow worms had ancestors with much more complex anatomies and a predatory role higher up in the food chain. Cambrian nectocaridids had camera-type eyes, long antennae, and streamlined bodies for active hunting.  In contrast, extant arrow worms have eyes that are sensitive to light but are not thought to have effective vision.  The researchers conclude that the ancestors of today’s arrow worms were nektonic predators.  They filled an ecological niche similar to living squid.  Although, squids evolved much later.  Preserved gut contents indicate that Nektognathus evasmithae fed on the swimming arthropod Isoxys.

Dr Vinther commented:

“We can therefore show how arrow worms used to occupy a role much higher in the food chain. Our fossils can be much bigger than a typical living arrow worm and combined with their swimming apparatus, eyes and long antennae, they must have been formidable and stealthy predators.”

A photograph of a modern chaetognath (arrow worm) from Antarctica. Picture credit: Tae-Yoon Park.

Picture credit: Tae-Yoon Park

This study gives us a new view of Cambrian nectocaridids. Far from being early squids, they were fierce predators with an advanced anatomy.  This study helps palaeontologists to better understand Cambrian marine ecosystems.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A fossilised ventral ganglion reveals a chaetognath affinity for Cambrian nectocaridids” by Jakob Vinther et al published in Science Advances.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models and Figures.

Researchers have named a new genus and species of rhabdodontomorph ornithopod from fossil material found in southeastern France. The dinosaur has been named Obelignathus septimanicus. The genus name was inspired by the French cartoon strip character Obélix from the Asterix the Gaul series, and the Latin word for jaw. Obélix is known for his exceptional strength and robust appearance. This is a reference to the unusually robustly built holotype dentary.

The researchers conclude that rhabdodontomorphs were more diverse in Europe than previously recognised.

A silhouette of the recently described 2025 ornithopod Obelignathus septimanicus from the Grès à Reptiles Formation in southern France. Scale bar equals 50 cm. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Obelignathus septimanicus

The origins and early diversification of the Ornithopoda is poorly understood.  For instance, the phylogeny of the Rhabdodontidae, a family of medium-sized ornithischian dinosaurs known solely from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe remains unresolved.  Current studies suggest eight or nine species, all of which are known from the upper Campanian to lower Maastrichtian of Europe.

Writing in the journal “Scientific Reports”, the researchers compiled a novel dataset made up from a morphological assessment and measurements of rhabdodontomorph dentaries.  The robust dentary (specimen number MDE D30) when first described in 1991 (Buffetaut and Le Loeuff), was thought to represent the genus Rhabdodon. However, it was sufficiently different to warrant its own species – Rhabdodon septimanicus. This latest analysis places R. septimanicus well outside the genus Rhabdodon and hence, a new genus has been erected.

Obelignathus is found to be a clear morphological outlier among European rhabdodontomorphs.  The research team members conclude that further large-scale studies are required to clarify the taxonomy of European rhabdodontomorphs.  These results indicate that this group of ornithopods exhibit greater diversity than currently recognised.  Several taxa appear to be coeval.

In common with most other rhabdodonts Obelignathus was relatively small. It is thought to have measured under three metres in length.

A New Herbivore from Late Cretaceous France

The find underscores southern France’s importance as a hotspot for Late Cretaceous dinosaur diversity. As fieldwork continues, Obelignathus offers a glimpse into the complex web of life that once thrived on the European archipelago.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the open access scientific paper in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Exploring the diversity and disparity of rhabdodontomorph ornithopods from the Late Cretaceous European archipelago” by Łukasz Czepiński and Daniel Madzia published in Scientific Reports.

For models of ornithopods and other dinosaurs: Dinosaur Models.

A remarkable fossilised ichthyosaur flipper has provided new insights into the hunting behaviour of ancient marine reptiles.  The study, published in the journal “Nature” reveals that the giant ichthyosaur Temnodontosaurus trigonodon relied on stealth whilst hunting in the darkness. The metre-long front flipper was equipped with flow control structures that probably served to suppress self-generated noise as this megapredator hunted in dimly lit pelagic environments.

Life reconstruction of the giant Jurassic ichthyosaur Temnodontosaurus trigonodon hunting in the depths. The artwork highlights the winglike flipper, and the unusual structures observed in the fin. Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe.

Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe

Temnodontosaurus trigonodon Flipper Study

Temnodontosaurus was a large ichthyosaur. Size estimates vary, however, some individuals may have exceeded ten metres in length. Researchers have named several species within the genus. While fragmentary remains of unusual “fish lizards” had previously been excavated along the Dorset coast, it was the discovery of a metre-long skull by Joseph Anning at Lyme Regis in the autumn of 1811—followed by vertebrae and ribs found by 13-year-old Mary Anning in 1812 that prompted the first formal scientific study and description of an ichthyosaur. More than two centuries later, these enigmatic marine reptiles continue to yield unexpected insights and discoveries.

The fossilised flipper (specimen number SSN8DOR11) was collected from a temporary exposure of dark, laminated limestone (Lower Toarcian Posidonia Shale) of southwestern Germany. The partial front flipper preserves soft tissue structures and has been studied by an international team of researchers led by Dr Johan Lindgren from Lund University in Sweden.  The research was undertaken in collaboration with Dr Dean Lomax, an 1851 Research Fellow at the University of Bristol, who has been working on the fossil for about six years. Dr Lomax is one of the world’s leading ichthyosaur experts.

Dr Dean Lomax and Dr Johan Lindgren, together with fellow researcher Sven Sachs, examining one part of the Temnodontosaurus trigonodon flipper at Lund University, Sweden. Picture credit: Katrin Sachs.

Picture credit: Katrin Sachs

Dr Lindgren, who has pioneered research into marine reptile soft tissues commented:

“The wing-like shape of the flipper, together with the lack of bones in the distal end and distinctly serrated trailing edge collectively indicate that this massive animal had evolved means to minimise sound production during swimming. Accordingly, this ichthyosaur must have moved almost silently through the water, in a manner similar to how living owls—whose wing feathers also form a zigzag pattern—fly quietly when hunting at night. We have never seen such elaborate evolutionary adaptations in a marine animal before.”

The remarkable fossil flipper specimen (SSN8DOR11) shown left, under UV light (centre) and in a line drawing (right). Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren.

Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren

“Silent Swimming”

Although there are many exceptional ichthyosaur specimens with soft-tissue preservation, most soft tissues are associated with the fossilised remains of much smaller dolphin-sized species.  This is a remarkable discovery, it represents the first-ever soft tissues associated with a large-bodied ichthyosaur. In addition, the research team have identified unique structures never observed before in an aquatic animal.  The crenulated trailing edge of the wing-shaped flipper being reinforced by novel, mineralised, rod-like structures.  The researchers have named these structures “chondroderms”.

Dr Dean Lomax, who is also a palaeontologist at the University of Manchester, said:

“The first time I saw the specimen, I knew it was unique. Having examined thousands of ichthyosaurs, I had never seen anything quite like it. This discovery will revolutionise the way we look at and reconstruct ichthyosaurs (and possibly also other ancient marine reptiles) but specifically soft-tissue structures in prehistoric animals.”

Novel cartilaginous integumentary structures. To the left, light micrograph of the crenulated trailing edge in SSN8DOR11. Note that each serration is supported by a centrally located chondroderm. To the right, magnified image of a distal chondroderm. Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren.

Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren

The team postulate that this huge predator relied on underwater stealth, or “silent swimming” while hunting in the depths, in much the same way that owls as nocturnal predators have almost silent flight.

Eyes as Big as Footballs

Temnodontosaurus had the largest eyes of any vertebrate known.  The eye sockets of some specimens are more than twenty-five centimetres in diameter.  These huge eyes lend further support to the theory that Temnodontosaurus hunted under low-light conditions, either at night or in deep waters.

Spectacular, 183-million-year-old soft-tissue fossil (SSN8DOR11; Paläontologisches Museum Nierstein, Nierstein, Germany): an isolated wing-like front flipper of the giant predatory ichthyosaur Temnodontosaurus (T. trigonodon). Photograph (left) and shown under UV light (centre). Line drawing (right) providing a representation of the metre-long flipper. Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren.

Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren

The remarkable fossilised flipper was discovered by fossil collector Georg Göltz, a co-author on the new study. Amazingly, Georg made the find entirely by chance whilst looking for fossils at a temporary exposure at a road cutting in the municipality of Dotternhausen, Germany. The fossil consists of both the part and counterpart (opposing sides) of almost an entire front flipper.  Georg continued to look for more remains, but no other fossil material was found.

As the proximal part of the fin is absent, it has been speculated that the flipper could have been ripped off by an even larger ichthyosaur.  The specimen was shown to palaeontologist and study co-author Sven Sachs (Natural History Museum, Bielefeld).  Dr Sachs immediately recognised the rarity of the find.

A multidisciplinary research team employed a variety of sensitive imaging, elemental and molecular analyses to examine the unique preserved structures. This involved high-end techniques such as synchrotron radiation-based X-ray microtomography at the Swiss Light Source SLS at PSI and Diamond Light Source, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and infrared microspectroscopy, along with the reconstruction of a virtual model using computational fluid dynamics.

To recreate the stealth hunting behaviours of a marine reptile that lived more than 180 million years ago is remarkable. Furthermore, by studying the fin morphology, scientists could find ways of reducing our impact on modern marine soundscapes.

Going Back to Mary Anning

For Dr Dean Lomax, this astonishing study harks all the way to back to the days of pioneering palaeontologist Mary Anning and her older brother Joseph.

He stated:

“In a weird way, I feel that there is a wonderful full-circle moment that goes back to Mary Anning showcasing that even after two hundred years, we are still uncovering exciting and surprising finds that link back to her initial discoveries.”

Dr Lomax added:

“The fossil provides new information on the flipper soft tissues of this enormous leviathan. It has structures never seen in any animal, and reveals a unique hunting strategy thus providing evidence of its behaviour, all combined with the fact that its noise-reducing features may even help us to reduce human-made noise pollution. Although I might be a little bias, in my opinion, this represents one of the greatest fossil discoveries ever made.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Adaptations for stealth in the wing-like flippers of a large ichthyosaur” by Johan Lindgren, Dean R. Lomax, Robert-Zoltán Szász, Miguel Marx, Johan Revstedt, Georg Göltz, Sven Sachs, Randolph G. De La Garza, Miriam Heingård, Martin Jarenmark, Kristina Ydström, Peter Sjövall, Frank Osbæck, Stephen A. Hall, Michiel Op de Beeck, Mats E. Eriksson, Carl Alwmark, Federica Marone, Alexander Liptak, Robert Atwood, Genoveva Burca, Per Uvdal, Per Persson and Dan-Eric Nilsson published in the journal Nature.

Visit the website of the award-winning palaeontologist and author Dr Dean Lomax: Palaeontologist Dr Dean Lomax.

Researchers have described a new species of Late Triassic pterosaur.  It has been named Eotephradactylus mcintireae and it represents North America’s oldest known flying reptile. A field team led by the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History and Columbia College Chicago discovered the fossil remains. They were exploring outcrops of the Owl Rock Member of the Chinle Formation in north-eastern Arizona. They come from an unusual bonebed that preserves the remains of a variety of Late Triassic vertebrates. The assemblage provides evidence of animals that persisted into the Jurassic co-existing with archaic lineages such as phytosaurs, armoured aetosauriforms and ancient temnospondyls.

The bonebed provides a snapshot of an ecosystem prior to the End Triassic Mass Extinction event.

North America’s oldest pterosaur described to date Eotephradactylus mcintireae disturbs some frogs whilst catching a ray-finned fish. An early tortoise is seen in the background and the bones of an armoured crocodilian are visible. Picture credit: Brian Engh.

Picture credit: Brian Engh

Eotephradactylus mcintireae – North America’s Oldest Pterosaur

The study has been published in the “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.”  The pterosaur fossils identified from the bonebed include a partial left mandible (lower jaw), isolated teeth and a phalanx (digit bone).  The fossils are approximately 209 million years old (Norian faunal stage of the Late Triassic).

Corresponding author Ben Kligman (Peter Buck Postdoctoral Fellow at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History), stated:

“The site captures the transition to more modern terrestrial vertebrate communities where we start seeing groups that thrive later in the Mesozoic living alongside these older animals that don’t make it past the Triassic. Fossil beds like these enable us to establish that all of these animals actually lived together.”

Kay Behrensmeyer (left), the curator of vertebrate palaeontology at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. Robin Whatley (right), professor and associate dean at Columbia College Chicago in the Petrified Forest National Park digging for fossils in a quarry in 2023. Picture credit: Ben Kligman, (Smithsonian).

Picture credit: Ben Kligman (Smithsonian)

“Ash-winged Dawn Goddess”

The genus name translates as “ash-winged dawn goddess”, it references the location’s volcanic ash layers and the pterosaur’s position as a basal member of the Pterosauria family tree. The species name honours preparator Suzanne McIntire, who discovered the fossil material in 2013 when preparing a block from the site.

The pterosaur fossil was unearthed by preparator Suzanne McIntire, a volunteer at the museum’s FossiLab for eighteen years. Picture credit: Bill King.

Picture credit: Bill King

The Owl Rock Member

The Owl Rock Member strata are some of the least explored parts of the Petrified Forest National Park.  The extensive volcanic ash layers in the quarry, permitted the scientists to calculate the age of the bonebed.  It represents the remains of an ecosystem that existed around 209 million years ago (Norian faunal stage of the Late Triassic).  These are some of the geologically youngest sediments in the Petrified Forest National Park.

In the Late Triassic, Arizona was positioned in the central part of the supercontinent Pangaea. The area was just north of the equator. It was a low-lying, semi-arid environment criss-crossed with small river channels and prone to seasonal floods. The bonebed likely preserves the remains of a community of animals that were caught up in a flash flood.

The bonebed is rich vertebrate fossils. So many fossils were found that excavating them in the field was impossible. Field team members took large chunks of rock, entombed in plaster jackets back to the preparation laboratory at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Volunteers spent thousands of hours carefully excavating the fossil material.

Ben Kligman (right), a Peter Buck Postdoctoral Fellow at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History with several of the museum’s FossiLab volunteers who contributed to the study of the fossils from the bonebed. Richard Cline (far left), Hillary Cochard, James Morrison and far right Lynn Sharp. Picture credit: Abby Telfer, (Smithsonian).

Picture credit: Abby Telfer (Smithsonian)

A Diverse Community of the Familiar and Not So Familiar

The gull-sized pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae shared its home with a huge variety of other vertebrates. Some of these animals would be familiar to us, others represent taxa that did not survive into the Jurassic. For example, coelacanths swam in the rivers along with freshwater sharks.  In addition, frogs were present and an ancient tortoise.

The tortoise fossils are of particular interest. They are some of the world’s oldest tortoise remains. The tortoise had a robust shell, with protruding spikes for additional protection. Stem members of the Testudinata clade (reptiles with a true carapace and plastron shell) are known from the Late Triassic. For instance, the genus Proterochersis was present in Germany and Poland and is roughly contemporaneous with the Owl Rock Member biota.

Ben Kligman commented:

“This suggests that turtles rapidly dispersed across Pangaea, which is surprising for an animal that is not very large and is likely walking at a slow pace.”

Animals that are familiar to us today coexisted with animals that were very different to modern faunas.  For example, whilst relatives of New Zealand’s tuatara were present (rhynchocephalians), there were also giant, ancient amphibians, aetosaurs and phytosaurs.

Over 1,200 Fossils Including the Pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae

The team has uncovered more than 1,200 individual fossils. They include bones, teeth, fish scales and coprolites. Sixteen different types of vertebrate were identified from this single bonebed indicating a diverse ecosystem.  Amongst these fossils were the remains of North America’s oldest known pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae.  Its discovery motivates research teams to continue to explore the remote and difficult to access Owl Rock Member exposures.

Suzanne McIntire reflecting on the significance of her discovery said:

“What was exciting about uncovering this specimen was that the teeth were still in the bone, so I knew the animal would be much easier to identify.”

The teeth provide important clues to the pterosaur’s diet; the worn-down crowns suggest it was durophagous, adapted for consuming hard-shelled prey.  The researchers conclude that this flying reptile fed on the site’s fish. Ray-finned fish are known from this locality (actinopterygians).  Many had armour-like scales, and a diet of these types of fish would have resulted in extensive tooth wear.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release by the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Unusual bone bed reveals a vertebrate community with pterosaurs and turtles in equatorial Pangaea before the end-Triassic extinction” by Ben T. Kligman, Robin L. Whatley, Jahandar Ramezani, Adam D. Marsh, Tyler R. Lyson, Adam J. Fitch, William G. Parker and Anna K. Behrensmeyer published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Pterosaur and Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists have named and described a new species of herrerasaurian dinosaur from India.  The dinosaur which measured around three to four metres in length has been named Maleriraptor kuttyi. It fills a temporal gap between South American herrerasaurid dinosaurs and their younger relatives from North America. Herrerasaurs from South America are around nine million years older than herrerasaurs known from the Northern Hemisphere.  The discovery of M. kuttyi shows that herrerasaurs survived in Gondwana at least during the early Norian after the extinction event that led to the demise of the rhynchosaurs.

A skeletal drawing of the newly described herrerasaur from India Maleriraptor kuttyi. The shaded bones indicate known fossil material. Scale bar equals 1 metre. Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science (Maurício Silva Garcia).

Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science/Maurício Silva Garcia

Maleriraptor kuttyi

The fossilised remains of Maleriraptor kuttyi were collected more than four decades ago from the Upper Maleri Formation in Pranhita-Godavari Valley, less than half a mile south of the village of Annaram in south-central India.  It is known from fragmentary material. The fossil remains consist of the first sacral vertebra, part of the second sacral rib, a vertebra representing a caudosacral element or the first in the caudal series, a single anterior (close to the base of the tail) caudal vertebra. In addition, the right ilium, both ends of the right pubis, and part of the left pubis have been identified.

The genus name is derived from the Upper Maleri Formation, in which the holotype and only known specimen was collected, and the Greek word raptor, meaning thief, which is an ending commonly used for theropod genera. The species name commemorates the late T. S. Kutty, who discovered the holotype and co-authored its preliminary description with some of the authors of the recently published study.

Geographic and stratigraphic occurrence of Maleriraptor kuttyi. Palaeomap of the Late Triassic depicting the occurrences of the herrerasaurs (a). Overview of the Gondwana basins in India (b), with the Pranhita-Godavari valley highlighted and (c) detailed geological map of a portion of the Pranhita-Godavari valley indicating the type localities of the nominal dinosaur species of the Upper Maleri Formation. Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science.

Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science

Herrerasaurids Surviving into the Norian

The deposition of the Upper Maleri Formation probably occurred shortly after the extinction of rhynchosaurs, which are abundantly recorded in the Lower Maleri Formation, but completely unknown from the geologically younger Upper Maleri Formation.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Maleriraptor kuttyi demonstrates that herrerasaurs survived in Gondwana after the extinction event that wiped out the once abundant and geographically widespread herbivorous rhynchosaurs.”

The researchers conclude that this newly described Indian herrerasaur fills a temporal gap between the Carnian South American herrerasaurids and the younger middle Norian-Rhaetian herrerasaurs of North America.

The scientific paper: “A new herrerasaurian dinosaur from the Upper Triassic Upper Maleri Formation of south-central India” by Martín D Ezcurra, Maurício Silva Garcia, Fernando E Novas, Rodrigo Temp Müller, Federico L Agnolín and Sankar Chatterjee published by the Royal Society Open Science.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists writing in the academic journal “Cretaceous Research” have described theropod dinosaur remains from Lower Cretaceous deposits in Spain.  The fossils come from the province of Soria. They represent theropods excavated from the Western Cameros sub-basin.  Ironically, it is the eastern parts of the Cameros sub-basin that have yielded the majority of theropod remains.  In addition to mapping the Early Cretaceous theropod record, the researchers report evidence of a giant spinosaurid from this region.  Known as the Zorralbo I baryonychine, it is the largest Lower Cretaceous theropod described to date from Iberia.

The Zorralbo I baryonychine size estimate. Human figure provides the scale. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The Zorralbo I Baryonychine

In the Cameros Basin, theropods have been mostly documented in the Eastern Cameros sub-basin with baryonychine spinosaurids dominating the theropod biota. Theropods are much rarer in the Western Cameros sub-basin.  The authors describe fossils from the Western Cameros sub-basin, recovered in the upper Hauterivian–lower Barremian Golmayo Formation of the Soria province. Specifically, the theropod remains come from the Los Caños and Zorralbo I sites, which are located in the Las Camaretas and the Zorralbo areas, respectively, south-east of the main town of Golmayo.

The theropod record from the Iberian Peninsula is highly fragmentary.  However, in this paper, the authors identified the presence of three early-branching members of the Tetanurae along with three baryonychine dental morphotypes.  In addition, an enormous spinosaurid was identified.  Anatomical and phylogenetic study of the skull, post-cranial and appendicular (limb) bones suggest that this huge spinosaurid is also likely to be a baryonychine.

Whereas the Early Cretaceous theropod record is represented by carcharodontosaurians, coelurosaurians and tetanurans, it is the spinosaurids that are the most prominent.  Spinosaurs seem to be the dominant theropods of these Lower Cretaceous deposits.

Five Spinosauridae Genera

To date, five spinosaurid genera have been described from the Iberian Peninsula.  Although, there are many more genera likely to be present.

The five members of the Spinosauridae described so far:

• Iberospinus natarioi – to read our blog post about this theropod: A New Spinosaurus from Portugal.
• Protathlitis cinctorrensis – our blog post about this new dinosaur: Protathlitis – Member of the Spinosauridae Family.
• Riojavenatrix lacustris – named in 2024 (Isasmendi et al).
• Vallibonavenatrix cani – named in 2019 (Malafaia et al).
• Camarillasaurus cirugedae – named in 2014 (Sánchez-Hernández and Benton).

The Cameros Basin could provide an excellent analogue for the theropod biota of the Iberian Peninsula.

The scientific paper: “A giant spinosaurid from the Iberian Peninsula and new data on the Early Cretaceous Iberian non-avian theropod palaeodiversity” by Erik Isasmendi, Elena Cuesta, Adrián Páramo and Xabier Pereda-Suberbiola published in Cretaceous Research.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Models and Toys.

Researchers have described a new species of non-cerapodan neornithischian from the famous Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States.  The dinosaur has been named Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae.  It is the most complete three-dimensionally preserved small ornithischian from the Morrison Formation known to date.  In addition, it is likely that there are numerous other small-bodied dinosaurs awaiting discovery.  The researchers, writing in the academic journal Royal Society Open Science conclude that small ornithischians are probably underrepresented.  Although the fossil record of these small dinosaurs is poor, Morrison Formation ornithischian species richness was likely higher than currently accepted.

A skeletal reconstruction (a) and (b) speculative life appearance of Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae. The shaded areas in the skeletal reconstruction represent known fossil material. Picture credit: Artwork by Bob Nicholls.

Picture credit: Artwork by Bob Nicholls (published in Royal Society Open Science)

Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae

The fossil material consists of a partial skeleton consisting of appendicular elements (limb bones), cervical, dorsal and caudal vertebrae, hip bones and three teeth. It was found on privately owned land (Moffat County, Colorado) and excavated by a commercial fossil collecting company. The fossil specimen now named NHMUK PV R 39000 was acquired by the London Natural History Museum in 2024.

The genus name is derived from “Enigma” which means puzzle or mystery. This is in reference to the convoluted taxonomic history of small-bodied ornithischian dinosaurs associated with the Morrison Formation. Furthermore, the genus name is derived from the Latin “cursor” for runner in recognition of the dinosaur’s elongated hind limbs and feet, adaptations for fast running. The species name honours Molly Borthwick. Her generous donation allowed the London Natural History Museum to purchase the specimen.

A Subadult Specimen

The Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae fossils probably represent a subadult.  Even when fully grown this dinosaur was tiny when compared to Morrison Formation giants such as Brontosaurus, Diplodocus, Apatosaurus and Stegosaurus.  It is thought that this dinosaur measured around 1.8 metres in length with a head height of approximately 65 centimetres.  Its tail was probably longer than the rest of its body.

The elongated feet (pedes) of the newly described (2025) non-cerapodan neornithischian E. mollyborthwickae. The feet and long hind limbs indicate that this small dinosaur was a fast runner. Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science.

Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science

The picture (above) shows the reconstructed feet (pedes) of Enigmacursor.  The right foot (pes) is represented in images a to c, whereas the left pes is shown in images d to f.

Key

Pedes of specimen number NHMUK PV R 39000, Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae, in (a–c) right pes; (d–f) left pes.  Proximal views (a and d).  Anterior/flexor views (b and e).  Posterior/plantar views (c and f).  Note that MT equals metatarsal and that the greyed-out areas indicate reconstruction.  Scale bars for b, c, e and f equal five cm. In contrast, the scale bars for images a and d are two cm.

Living Alongside Giants

Although the remains of small, cursorial ornithischian dinosaurs from the Morrison Formation have been known about for over 150 years, most of the 19th and early 20th century specimens are poorly preserved and incomplete. These dinosaurs have tended to be overlooked as palaeontologists focused on the larger taxa present. Many of these small ornithischians are designated nomina dubia. This means that any scientific name applied is doubtful and likely to be invalid.

Small dinosaurs from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation are not the only extinct animals to suffer from this form of bias. When modern ecosystems are studied, it is very notable that living alongside the megafauna there is a whole array of smaller animals.  It is likely that ecosystems in the Mesozoic were similar with many more types of small dinosaur (under one hundred kilograms), living amongst much larger animals.

To read a related article about a small, almost overlooked pachycephalosaur: A New Bone-headed Dinosaur is Scientifically Described.

Fortunately, the fossils of Enigmacursor will have the opportunity to take centre stage.  This little dinosaur is part of a new exhibit at the London Natural History Museum.  This is the first new fossil dinosaur exhibit at the Museum for eleven years.  Ironically, the last new dinosaur exhibit at the Museum was a contemporary of E. mollyborthwickae.  In 2014, the London Natural History Museum opened a new exhibit featuring a Stegosaurus.

Right lateral View of “Sophie” the Stegosaurus (London Natural History Museum). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the Royal Society open access paper in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae, a neornithischian dinosaur from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western USA” by Susannah C. R. Maidment and Paul M. Barrett published by Royal Society Open Science.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Models.