Scientists have identified the oldest reptile skin impressions from a remarkable fossil discovered in Germany. The fossil also preserves possible evidence of a cloaca (vent).  The vent shape and structure are reminiscent of the vents found in extant turtles and living squamates. Dr Lorenzo Marchetti from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin led the research. The study has been published in the academic journal “Current Biology”.

The earliest resting trace of a stem reptile and the fossil specimen preserves the earliest evidence of epidermal scales and a cloaca (vent). These scales are preserved on a newly described resting trace Cabarzichnus pulchrus representing the oldest and most complete body-impression occurrence of a Palaeozoic stem reptile. Picture credit: Lorenzo Marchetti

Picture credit: Lorenzo Marchetti

The Oldest Reptile Skin Impressions Known to Science

The stunning and beautifully  preserved skin impressions were found on a slab with associated footprints of an early reptile (Varanopus microdactylus). The material is from the Goldlauter Formation and dates from the Early Permian. Modern radiometric dating of volcanic ash layers allows the finds to be precisely dated. They are around 299-298 million years old. This makes them the oldest direct evidence of reptile skin found to date.

Skin structures such as scales, feathers or horned beak remnants are documented by a large number of fossils. For example, several examples of dinosaur integument are known. Recently, we wrote a blog post about a remarkable study of the skin of Diplodocus. However, the German skin impressions are around twice as old as the Diplodocus skin impression material.

To read about the study of diplodocid integument: The Amazing Skin of a Young Diplodocus.

A sauropod skin impression (NHMUK R1868) on display as part of the London Natural History Museum Patagotitan exhibition. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Commenting on the significance of the research, Dr Lorenzo Marchetti stated:

“Such soft tissue structures are extremely rare in the fossil record – and the further back we go in geological history, the more extraordinary they become. The traces from the Thuringian Forest open up new perspectives on the early development of reptiles and their skin structures.”

Cabarzichnus pulchrus

The newly described resting traces have been named Cabarzichnus pulchrus.  It is a new genus and species of trace fossil. The associated footprints have proportions similar to those of bolosaurs – an early group of reptiles from the lineage of today’s lizards. The preserved scale shapes range from diamond-shaped to hexagonal to laterally pointed and show remarkable parallels to integuments of living reptiles.

We Have a Cloaca

The skin impression representing the base of the tail preserves possible evidence of a cloaca (vent). Most terrestrial vertebrates have a cloaca – a common opening for the excretion of faeces and urine, which is also the exit point for the reproductive organs. Only live-bearing mammals have separate openings. In the fossil record, the cloaca is almost never preserved and clearly recognisable as part of the soft tissue. However, the skin impression shows traces of a cloaca opening near the base of the tail. The impression of the narrow slit suggests that the cloaca of the Cabarzichnus track maker differs in shape and orientation from that of dinosaurs and crocodiles, resembling instead the cloaca of turtles, lizards and snakes.

Trace fossils which preserve the oldest reptile skin impressions can provide a more complete picture of the evolution of early land vertebrates.

Dr Marchetti added:

“Trace fossils are much more than mere footprints. They preserve details of anatomy that would otherwise be completely lost and contribute significantly to a better understanding of the evolution of early terrestrial vertebrates.”

This record of dermal and epidermal scales provides evidence for the co-existence of epidermal and dermal scales in Carboniferous stem amniotes and for epidermal scale differentiation in Asselian stage (Early Permian) stem reptiles. Therefore, this adaptation precedes the main phases of the global warming and aridification associated with the Early Permian and probably enabled the diversification of stem reptiles.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “The earliest reptile body impressions with scaly skin” by Lorenzo Marchetti, Antoine Logghe, Michael Buchwitz, Mark J. MacDougall, Arnaud Rebillard, Thomas Martens and Jörg Fröbisch published in Current Biology.

For models and figures of Palaeozoic vertebrates: Models of Early Terrestrial Vertebrates.

A remarkable fossil discovery from Thuringia (Germany) has provided direct evidence of the feeding habits of early terrestrial predators.  The fossil comes from the Bromacker locality.  This is a UNESCO Global Geopark and it preserves an ancient ecosystem that existed approximately 290 million years ago.  Bone fragments preserved in a mass have been identified as a bromalite.  It was thought they represented a coprolite (fossilised faeces).  A bromalite is a trace fossil.  It represents material originating from an animal’s digestive system. For example, it could be excreted matter in the form of faeces or urine.  It could also represent regurgitated matter such as pellets regurgitated by a bird of prey or even vomit.  The bromalite has been identified as regurgitated material. The Bromacker bromalite study has been published in the academic journal “Scientific Reports”.

Compacted Bone Fragments

The fossil consists of a tangle of compacted bones.  Indigestible food remains were regurgitated by a predator.  Such finds are extremely rare, especially on land. The Bromacker find is the oldest known evidence of such regurgitation from the Palaeozoic and the first that can be clearly attributed to a terrestrial predator. Modern computerised tomography (CT scans) enabled the research team to reconstruct each bone in three dimensions. The analysis revealed that the predator had eaten at least three different vertebrates of different species and body sizes. These included two smaller, agile land animals and a significantly larger, herbivorous animal.

Only two large predators are known from the Bromacker locality.  Firstly, there is Tambacarnifex which superficially resembled a large monitor lizard. Secondly, there is the sail-backed reptile Dimetrodon. Both are considered to be apex predators.

A Dimetrodon teutonis one of the apex predators of the Bromacker locality regurgitates undigestible remains. In the foreground an Eudibamus cursoris scuttles away from the carnivore. A Thuringothyris mahlendorffae basks on a rock in the background. The image also features the prehistoric plants Arnhardtia scheibei, Calamites gigas, Sphenopteridium germanicum, and Walchia piniformis. Picture credit: Sophie Fernandez.

Picture credit: Sophie Fernandez

The Significance of the Bromacker Bromalite Study

Commenting on the significance of this research, lead author of the study Arnaud Rebillard (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin) stated:

“For the first time, we can directly show which animals an early land predator ate. Such direct evidence of feeding relationships is virtually unknown from this period.”

In total, forty-one bones were identified.  They comprise a maxilla attributed to the captorhinomorph Thuringothyris mahlendorffae, postcranial elements of the bolosaurid Eudibamus cursoris and an unidentified diadectid, along with several unassignable elements.  The Bromacker bromalite study indicates that large, terrestrial predators were opportunists and consumed a wide variety of prey.

The discovery not only provides new insights into the behaviour of individual animals but also offers a rare glimpse into the food webs of early terrestrial ecosystems. It shows how complex and diverse life terrestrial food webs had become by the Early Permian.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Early Permian terrestrial apex predator regurgitalite indicates opportunistic feeding behaviour” by Arnaud Rebillard, Andréas Jannel, Lorenzo Marchetti, Mark J. MacDougall, Christopher Hamann, J.-Sébastien Steyer and Jörg Fröbisch published in Scientific Reports.

For models of Dimetrodon and other prehistoric creatures: Prehistoric Animal Figures.

The Rhynie chert fossils represent one of the most important palaeontological discoveries ever made. This unique Scottish site preserves an Early Devonian ecosystem in astonishing detail. As a result, scientists can learn about an ancient palaeoenvironment.  The biota that existed in a swamp close to hot, mineral-rich springs was like nothing known on Earth today.

Moreover, the Rhynie chert captures life in situ. It preserves hot spring environments, early land plants, arthropods, and microbial communities. Therefore, it provides a rare snapshot of terrestrial ecosystems around 407 million years ago.  As part of a media release concerning a new study into the giant, enigmatic taxon Prototaxites, we received an artist’s impression of the Rhynie chert Devonian landscape.

Artist’s impression of what the environment at Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, where the Prototaxites fossils were discovered, would have looked like 410 million years ago. Picture credit: Matt Humpage.

Picture credit: Matt Humpage

Researching Rhynie Chert Fossils

Recent research has provided additional insight. A recent study suggests that Prototaxites does not belong to fungi or plants. Instead, it may represent an entirely unknown complex life form. This discovery reshapes how we understand early terrestrial life and evolutionary experimentation.

To read our blog post about this research: Beautiful Rhynie Chert Fossils Reveal Their Secrets.

The Rhynie chert fossils continue to challenge long-held assumptions. They demonstrate that Early Devonian ecosystems were already diverse and surprisingly sophisticated. Consequently, this site remains a global reference point for palaeobiology and evolutionary research.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Museum fossil collections are invaluable. Fossils collected decades ago can play a role in new research. Improved analytical techniques allow scientists to re-examine old specimens and uncover fresh insights. We still have so much to learn about our incredible planet and its deep evolutionary history.”

The Rhynie chert fossils continue to transform our understanding of early terrestrial life. They remind us that evolution experimented in unexpected ways during the Devonian.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the National Museums of Scotland in the compilation of this article.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Models of Prehistoric Animals and Plants.

Newly published research suggests that Early Devonian Prototaxites was a “new” form of life.  This giant organism, represented in the fossil record by columnar fossils up to eight metres tall, is distinct from plants and fungi.  Writing in the academic journal “Science Advances”, scientists from the University of Edinburgh and National Museums Scotland postulate that Prototaxites fossils represent a complex lifeform that is neither a fungus or a plant. Furthermore, the researchers postulate that these novel organisms died out around 360 million years ago.

An artist impression of what Prototaxites would have look like in life. It is surrounded by primitive plants in the Rhynie chert landscape. Picture credit Matt Humpage.

Picture credit: Matt Humpage

Studying Prototaxites Fossils

The fossil at the centre of this investigation comes from the famous Rhynie chert. Named after the nearby village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire (Scotland), the rocks preserve a terrestrial ecosystem that existed approximately 407 million years ago.  Hot springs saturated with minerals periodically inundated a nearby marsh ecosystem.  The primitive plants and other organisms were preserved in amazingly detail.  Cell walls and pore spaces were replaced by these minerals.  The fossils from this locality provide a unique insight into early terrestrial plant communities.

The fossil material used in this study will be housed and cared for at the National Museums Collection Centre in the north of Edinburgh.

Lead co-author Dr Sandy Hetherington, Research Associate at National Museums Scotland and Senior Lecturer from the School of Biological Sciences at the University of Edinburgh, explained:

“It’s really exciting to make a major step forward in the debate over Prototaxites, which has been going on for around 165 years. They are life, but not as we now know it, displaying anatomical and chemical characteristics distinct from fungal or plant life, and therefore belonging to an entirely extinct evolutionary branch of life. Even from a site as loaded with palaeontological significance as Rhynie, these are remarkable specimens and it’s great to add them to the National Collection in the wake of this exciting research.”

National Museums Scotland Research Associate Sandy Hetherington with a sample of the 410-million-year-old fossil of Prototaxites. Picture credit: Neil Hanna.

Picture credit: Neil Hanna

Prototaxites (P. taiti) Chemically and Structurally Distinct from Fungi

Following an analysis of the Prototaxites fossil material, the research team concluded that this organism was chemically distinct from contemporaneous fungi. In addition, the study demonstrates that it is structurally distinct from all known fungi.

Co-lead and first author Dr Corentin Loron (UK Centre for Astrobiology at the University of Edinburgh) said:

“The Rhynie chert is incredible. It is one of the world’s oldest fossilised terrestrial ecosystems and because of the quality of preservation and the diversity of its organisms, we can pioneer novel approaches such as machine learning on fossil molecular data. There is a lot of other material from the Rhynie chert already in museum collections for comparative studies, which can add important context to scientific results.”

Co-author of the study Corentin Loron from the University of Edinburgh with a slice sample of the Prototaxites fossil. Picture credit: Neil Hanna.

Picture credit: Neil Hanna

A Separate and Entirely Extinct Form of Life

This study casts doubt upon the fungal affinity of Prototaxites, instead suggesting that this enigmatic organism is best assigned to an entirely extinct eukaryotic lineage.

Co-first author Laura Cooper, a PhD student from the Institute of Molecular Plant Sciences at the University of Edinburgh, added:

“Our study, combining analysing the chemistry and anatomy of this fossil, demonstrates that Prototaxites cannot be placed within the fungal group. As previous researchers have excluded Prototaxites from other groups of large complex life, we concluded that Prototaxites belonged to a separate and now entirely extinct lineage of complex life. Prototaxites therefore represents an independent experiment that life made in building large, complex organisms, which we can only know about through exceptionally preserved fossils.”

Dr Nick Fraser, Keeper of Natural Sciences at National Museums Scotland said:

“We’re delighted to add these new specimens to our ever-growing natural science collections which document Scotland’s extraordinary place in the story of our natural world over billions of years to the present day. This study shows the value of museum collections in cutting-edge research as specimens collected over time are, cared for and made available for study for direct comparison or through the use of new technologies.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the National Museums of Scotland in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Prototaxites fossils are structurally and chemically distinct from extinct and extant Fungi” by Corentin C. Loron, Laura M. Cooper, Sean McMahon, Seán F. Jordan, Andrei V. Gromov, Matthew Humpage, Niall Rodgers, Laetitia Pichevin, Hendrik Vondracek, Ruaridh Alexander, Edwin Rodriguez Dzul, Alexander T. Brasier, Michael Krings, and Alexander J. Hetherington published in Science Advances.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal and Prehistoric Plant Models.

Researchers have reported the discovery of a fragment of pterosaur finger bone from the UNESCO World Heritage site Stevns Klint. The Stevns Klint cliffs are located on the eastern coast of the Danish island of Sjaelland. The fossil along with other fragmentary bones, was found in the uppermost Maastrichtian, Højerup Member of the Møns Klint Formation strata of Holtug limestone quarry.  This is the first time that pterosaur remains have been reported from this location.  The specimen is a piece of the phalanx 1 of digit IV (the wing finger).  Its size suggests that small-bodied pterosaurs with a wingspan of less than half a metre existed during the last fifty to sixty thousand years of the Cretaceous.

Unfortunately, it is not possible to determine whether the specimen is an adult or juvenile.  However, if the fossil represents a bone from an adult pterosaur, then this is the smallest pterosaur known from the Late Cretaceous.

It overlaps in size with contemporaneous birds, rejecting previous hypotheses that Late Cretaceous pterosaurs and birds avoided competition through size-based niche partitioning.

Fragments of the pterosaur finger bone and skeletal reconstruction showing location of a bone fragment. Drawing of pterosaur skeleton showing location of fragment OESM 13096 in red (A). OESM 13096 (B) left phalanx 1 of digit IV in ventral view, dorsal (C), posterior (D), proximal (E), and distal (F) views. OESM 13323, fragment of phalanx 2 or phalanx 3 of digit IV in lateral (G) and ventral (H) views, end cross-sections (I, J). Specimen number OESM 13324 (D) unidentifiable fragment displaying numerous (pneumatic) foramina, rotated around vertical axis in different views (K, L, M). Picture credit: Milàn et al.

Picture credit: Milàn et al

Studying a Fragmentary Pterosaur Finger Bone

The preserved fragments indicate the individual was perhaps a tenth to a fifth the size of the smallest of the latest Maastrichtian pterosaurs from Morocco (Alcione elainus). It is not possible to provide a more precise taxonomic assessment of the specimen, other than referring it to the Pterosauria.  The researchers conclude that these bones could indicate a flying reptile with a wingspan of perhaps twenty to fifty centimetres. For comparison, the common blackbird (Turdus merula) has a wingspan of around thirty-five to forty centimetres.  This could be evidence of small pterosaurs present in the late Maastrichtian of the Cretaceous.  Ironically, a time when it had been thought that birds had replaced small pterosaur species.

Everything Dinosaur’s blog post about pterosaur diversity in the Late Cretaceous: Late Cretaceous Pterosaurs More Diverse Than Previously Thought.

The Stevns Klint Palaeoenvironment

The strata comprising the cliffs on the island of Sjaelland are remarkable. The limestone and chalk deposits represent a sequence of deposition from the very end of the Cretaceous through to the Palaeogene (Danian faunal stage of the Palaeocene). As such, these rocks provide scientists with an insight into the last few thousand years of the Cretaceous and the period immediately after the End-Cretaceous extinction event.

It had been thought that the emergence of birds led to the extinction of small pterosaur species. The niches previously occupied by small-bodied pterosaurs were gradually filled by birds. However, this pterosaur finger bone discovery and the other specimens suggest that this might be an oversimplification of the true picture. That small pterosaurs did persist until the end of the Cretaceous.

Palaeogeographic map of northern Europe during the end Maastrichtian, showing the location of the present day Stevns Klint. The nearest coastline was at that time located approximately 150 km northeast in the Fenno-Scandian landmass in what is today southern Sweden. Picture credit: Milàn et al.

Picture credit: Milàn et al

An Additional Implication for the Pterosauria

If the new pterosaur specimen derives from a near or fully grown adult individual, then it is evidence for the presence of at least one taxon of small-bodied pterosaur persisting until the end of the Cretaceous. Intriguingly, this discovery opens up another scenario concerning Late Cretaceous pterosaurs.  If the fossil is from a hatchling or juvenile of a species that attained much larger size when fully grown, then it was already capable of flying great distances.  The fossil material comes from the Højerup Member.  These rocks were laid down in a relatively deep-water environment at least ninety miles (one hundred and fifty kilometres) offshore.  Hatchling pterosaurs were likely super-precocial and capable fliers.

Previous studies suggested that hatchling or juvenile pterosaurs were initially adapted to active sustained flight in restricted, vegetation-filled environments. As they grew and matured, they became more efficient long-distance gliders necessarily utilising more open environments. In turn, this supports the idea of niche partitioning in pterosaurs, where individuals at different ages occupied different ecological niches and environments.  However, this fossil material, if not from an adult, indicates that even young pterosaurs were capable of flying considerable distances in open environments.

The Pterosauria are an enigmatic clade.  They were the first vertebrates to evolve powered flight.   This study highlights that we still have a lot to learn about these remarkable flying reptiles.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of one of the paper’s authors (Jesper Milàn) in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “A diminutive pterosaur from the uppermost Maastrichtian chalk of Denmark” by Jesper Milàn, Sten Lennart Jakobsen and Bent Erik Kramer Lindow published in
Acta Palaeontologica Polonica.

For pterosaur models and figures: Pterosaur and Dinosaur Models.

For the first time, the International Mammoth Conference heads to Africa. This decision marks a historic milestone. Importantly, it reflects the continent’s deep evolutionary significance. In January 2026, the National Museums of Kenya will host the “International Conference of Mammoths and their Relatives” in Nairobi. Scientists, academics, researchers, and enthusiasts will gather from across the globe. Together, they will share new insights into mammoths, mastodons, and their extinct relatives.

Crucially, proboscideans first evolved in Africa. Fossil evidence suggests the first proboscideans evolved around sixty million years ago (Palaeocene Epoch). Therefore, this setting feels especially fitting. It places cutting-edge research back at the group’s evolutionary roots. Furthermore, two of the remaining extant elephant species are in Africa.  Many proboscidean lineages evolved in Africa.  For example, deinotheres (family Deinotheriidae) are thought to have originated in Ethiopia.  A favourite Deinotherium figure is the Eofauna Scientific Research Deinotherium model.

The Eofauna Scientific Research Deinotherium model. A fantastic prehistoric elephant replica. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The team behind the Eofauna range of figures have conducted extensive research into prehistoric elephants.

To view the range of Eofauna Scientific Research models: Eofauna Scientific Research Figures.

The International Mammoth Conference

The “International Conference of Mammoths and their Relatives” is held every four years.  The inaugural conference took place in 1995. This quadrennial international meeting brings together leading researchers in this field of palaeontology. Moreover, conferences like this matter. They help strengthen academic networks beyond Europe and the United States. They also inspire regional students and researchers. As a result, interest in the natural world can grow more evenly worldwide.

Ultimately, this conference celebrates science, collaboration, and Africa’s vital role in palaeontology.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“We wish the organisers and everyone attending an enjoyable and most rewarding conference.  It is great to see that this event is being held in Africa.  Perhaps, the conference will lead to greater cooperation between African universities and museums and their counterparts in Europe and North America.”

For models of prehistoric elephants and other prehistoric animals: Prehistoric Animal Models.