Australopithecus africanus – Stone Making Ancient Hunters

Although no stone tools have been found in the same sediments as Australopithecus africanus fossils, for a long time scientists believed A. africanus was a hunter (the habitat in which this species lived is believed to have been a mixed savannah-forested environment).  Precisely, when early hominins started to use tools is difficult to determine.  While working in the Afar Region of  Ethiopia (northern Ethiopia), a research project team (the Dikika Research Project), found fossilised bones bearing unambiguous evidence of stone tool use – cut marks inflicted whilst removing meat from the bone and percussion marks made when bones were deliberately broken to extract the highly nutritious marrow.

Australopithecus

Whilst it has been speculated that the Australopithecines at Dikika were using sharp-edged stones to carve meat from the bones of animals, it is not possible to determine from the marks themselves whether the stones used were simply found or shaped deliberately.  However, the bones are most definitely marked by scratches and percussion impressions.  Analysis has demonstrated that these marks were created before the bones were fossilised, eliminating the possibility that the marks could have been made more recently.

At home on the plains.

The model (above) is a retired Bullyland Australopithecus figure.  To view the range of Bullyland dinosaur and prehistoric animal models in stock: Bullyland Prehistoric Animal Models and Figures.

No flaked stone tools were found at the Dikika sites, this could indicate that the Dikika residents were simply opportunistic, just finding and using sharp-edged stones where they happened to be.  Most of the marks on the bones at Dikika do have features that indicate that they were made by stone tools.  Intriguingly, regardless of whether or not the stone tools were being made, the fact that they were being used to access the very nutritious bone marrow would have had significant implications for early hominin development and ultimately our own evolution.

Live Birth Fossil – Placoderm gave birth to Live Young

A placoderm parent!  A 380-million-year-old fossil placoderm reveals an internal embryo and a mineralised umbilical cord, indicating that these ancient fish gave birth to live young, pushing back the origins of viviparous behaviour by 200 million years.

A team of Australian scientists have claimed that this is one of the most important palaeontological finds and the earliest example of vertebrate sex discovered to date.  One of the team’s lead researchers Dr John Long (Museum Victoria) stated:

“This is one of these real eureka moments in science you have once in your lifetime.  When you look down the microscope and there it was – an embryo inside a 380-million-year-old fish – and I was blown away by the very thought of this fish giving birth to live young almost 400 million years ago.”

The fossil fish is a member of the now extinct Placodermi Class and has been dated to the  Devonian period, otherwise known as the Age of Fishes.  The 25 cm long fossil was found in the far north of Western Australia, south east of Fitzroy Crossing in a fantastically fossil rich area known as the Gogo Formation.  Approximately 380 million years ago this area of dry, scrub-land was covered by a shallow sea and teemed with life, an environment similar to the Great Barrier reef of Australia to day, the corals that provided much of the habitat were not the scleractinian corals of today, these types of corals first evolved in the Triassic, the corals that dominated this environment were rugose and tabulate corals, two types of coral that went extinct at the end of the Permian period.

The Placodermi

The placoderms were very heavily armoured fishes that possessed bony skeletons and jaws.  The head and trunk were encased in a box-like series of bony plates, the group is believed to have evolved sometime in the Silurian and diversified into as many as 200 different genera.  Fossils of placoderms have been found in sediments that represent both marine and freshwater environments.

The shales that form the Upper Devonian Gogo Formation were formed in quiet bays, that formed a link between the coral sea and the surrounding coastal areas.  The sediments contain superbly preserved fossil fish and other creatures that lived in this ancient sea.  These thick deposits contain one of the most diverse collection of animal fossils of the Devonian period with over 25 varieties of placoderms, ray-finned fishes, lobe-fins and lungfish.  Such has been the quantity and quality of fossils from this area that a placoderm has been adopted as the official state fish of Western Australia – it is known affectionately as the GoGo fish – official name Mcnamaraspis kaprios.

Preserved as original bone in limestone nodules within the shale, these fossils represent the best preserved early fishes in the world and the site is of huge importance to scientists as they try to piece together the evidence to understand how and why vertebrates moved onto land.

A Placoderm Parent

The fossil showing the embryo was found three years ago, but only after the specimen was placed in an acid bath to help dissolve away the surrounding matrix, was the significance of this particular fossil recognised.  Acid preparation is a common technique used by laboratory technicians to help reveal more of a fossil which is surrounded by a limestone matrix.  This technique was pioneered by scientists at the Natural History Museum in London and used to help reveal more of dinosaur bones embedded in calcareous rocks.

This particular placoderm, represents a new species and it has been named Materpiscis attenboroughi after Sir David Attenborough, in recognition of his work in the field of Natural History and his help in identifying the Gogo Formation as being of major scientific importance.

“The discovery is certainly one of the most extraordinary fossil finds ever made and changes our understanding of the evolution of vertebrates,” Melbourne-based Dr Long commented.

“The existence of the embryo and umbilical cord within the specimen provides scientists with the first every example of internal fertilisation – that is, sex – confirming that some placoderms had remarkably advanced reproductive biology.”

Once the cleaned and fully prepared fossil was put under a powerful CT scanner at the Australian National University in Canberra, the yolk sac and a major blood vessel inside the umbilical cord could clearly be seen.  The fossil provides evidence that the basic body plan that makes up a vertebrate was already present 380 million years ago and sheds light on how placoderms reproduced.

An Artist’s Impression of Materpiscis attenboroughi

Picture credit: Museum Victoria

The paper on this particular specimen, the oldest vertebrate mother known,  has just been published in the scientific journal Nature.  It seems that some placoderms reproduced in a very similar way to some cartilaginous fish (sharks and rays) who are also viviparous – able to give birth to live young.

Could this be evidence that the sharks and rays shared a common ancestor with the placoderms?  The fossil record of vertebrates is particularly poor in the Silurian and Ordovician and scientists are still uncertain as to the relationships between the different Orders of fish.  Perhaps this fossil of a female placoderm provides evidence of convergent evolution.  Convergent evolution is the development of similar anatomical or morphological characteristics such as the ability to give birth to live young in unrelated groups of animals or plants in response to the same environmental pressures.

An Exhibit Featuring the Most Famous Placoderm of All – Dunkleosteus

The spectacular Dunkleosteus exhibit.  Perhaps the most famous placoderm of all.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The ability to give birth to fully developed young which had grown up inside the mother for protection would have given such creatures an advantage, helping to ensure the survival of more babies, than those species that laid eggs expelled from the body – oviparous behaviour.  There were certainly a great number of predators around ready to feast on any eggs that were found, fish such as the lung fishes, lobe-finned species as well as the large arthropod predators the sea scorpions (eurypterids).

Remarkable Fish Finds

Some other remarkable fish finds have been reported from the Gogo fossil site, including evidence of fish with muscle tissue similar to that which is found in land living vertebrates and an almost 3-D impression of a fish providing information on nerve and circulatory tissue.  Such exquisite preservation provides scientists with an opportunity to learn a great deal more about life in the Devonian seas.  Another placoderm specimen from the same formation was found in 1986, this fossil shows evidence of three internal embryos and study of the developing babies could provide the Australian team with a wealth of new data on bone formation and the growth of young placoderms.

Unfortunately, any biological advantage life birth gave some of their kind, this was have been outweighed by other factors as the entire family went extinct at the end of the Devonian – perhaps their armoured blunt bodies made them too inefficient swimmers to compete effectively with the tetrapods and the rapidly diversifying other fish families.

Everything Dinosaur stocks a range of prehistoric fish replicas including models of Dunkleosteus.  For example, the PNSO model range includes several ancient fish models including prehistoric sharks and a Dunkleosteus figure: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs Figures.

New Research into Late Cretaceous Pterosaurs – Not Flyers but Stalkers

New research published today, led by scientists from the University of Portsmouth has concluded that many of the large pterosaurs of the Late Cretaceous may have had a completely different lifestyle than previously thought.  Large azhdarchid pterosaurs may have been terrestrial hunter.  Animals may have been stalked by a flock of Quetzalcoatlus!  They may have been walkers, not long-distance gliders, patrolling the great fern plains snatching up prey with their long toothless beaks.

Pterosaurs are not Dinosaurs

Pterosaurs are not dinosaurs, but reptiles that shared a common ancestry with the dinosaurs (the Archosauria).  The first fossils of these flying reptiles date back to the middle of the Triassic, around 230 million years ago.  They evolved into a myriad of forms, from long-tailed pterosaurs with relatively short bodies and stubby wings to the huge, short-tailed pterosaurs of the Late Cretaceous with many species having wingspans in excess of 8 metres.

Pterosaur Success

These flying reptiles were very successful during the Mesozoic period, although their numbers and the diversity of the group declined sharply towards the end of the Cretaceous.  Scientists have speculated about why this group of animals declined, perhaps it was because of competition from the rapidly diversifying birds.  After all, feathered flyers would have a number of advantages over gliding or flying reptiles that were powered by flaps of skin, living tissue membranes, reinforced with tough, elastic fibres which were supported by an elongated fourth finger.

To read more about pterosaurs competing with birds: Did the Birds wipe out the Pterosaurs?

The last of the flying reptiles were giants, animals like Quetzalcoatlus and Pteranodon.  Interestingly, Pteranodon fossils (the family is called Pteranodontidae) have been mainly found in marine sediments.  This indicates that these animals lived in coastal habitats and they were probably piscivorous (fish-eaters).  In contrast, fossils of the genus Quetzalcoatlus (family is called the Azhdarchidae), are associated with sediments that were laid down inland; far away from a marine environment.  The fossil evidence revealed so far on the Azhdarchidae pterosaurs does not point to them being typical fish-eaters and there are some subtle differences in their anatomy when compared to other large pterosaurs that may indicate a totally different ecological niche for these bizarre creatures.

Stalked by a Flock of Quetzalcoatlus

This new study carried out by Mark Witton and Dr Darren Naish has reviewed the current data and published fossil material on the azhdarchids.  They have come to the conclusion that these animals may have been the prehistoric equivalent of ground-feeding birds such as the ground hornbills and some types of modern stork.

The study of azhdarchid anatomy, footprints attributed to these pterosaurs and the distribution of their fossils by the research team shows that the coastal glider, fish-eater stereotype of large pterosaurs does not necessarily apply to this particular family of flying reptiles.  Their review provides evidence that some types of azhdarchids were strongly adapted for terrestrial life.  According to the review of the fossil bones of azhdarchids the scientists have concluded that they were better adapted for walking than other types of flying reptile because they had long limbs in proportion to their bodies.  Their light, skulls ending in a sharp, pointed but toothless beak would have been well suited for picking up small animals and other food from the ground.  They would then have manipulated their food in the huge beak before swallowing it whole (probably head first like many species of ground hunting birds do today).

Azhdarchid Pterosaurs

Azhdarchids such as Quetzalcoatlus, a huge pterosaur with a wingspan of approximately 12 metres have big eye sockets in their skulls indicating large eyes, with perhaps telescopic vision, although this can only be speculated at the moment.  The placement of the eyes to the side of the head but looking forward would have enabled these large animals to judge distance accurately.  Some palaeontologists believe that these physical attributes would have helped Quetzalcoatlus scan lakes for fish on the surface or perhaps to search the terrain below them for carcases to scavenge as they flew high above, just like vultures do today.  However, this new paper reports on how effective these adaptations would be for spotting and grabbing prey as these huge reptiles wandered around on all fours.

An Artist’s Impression of Quetzalcoatlus Searching for Food

Picture credit: Mark Witton

The illustration above shows a flock of Quetzalcoatlus moving through an extensive fern plain predating on small animals including baby dinosaurs hiding in the undergrowth.  The wings may not have been particularly effective for flying with rapid wing beats, but could have served as giant shields to prevent potential prey escaping.  Moving in a line they could have co-operated together in order to stop any small animals avoiding being eaten.  Such behaviour is seen in the group hunting of some pelican species today.

If the azhdarchids did have this sort of environmental niche, it is possible to imagine them following behind the herds of hadrosaurs and ceratopsians snatching at the small creatures such as lizards, mammals and small dinosaurs disturbed by these huge herbivores as they wandered the plains.

It would be beneficial for both types of animals, the ceratopsians for example could rely on the pterosaurs with their keen eyesight to keep a look out for potential predators such as tyrannosaurs, whilst the azhdarchids could rely on the horned dinosaurs to flush out potential prey and with their horny beaks they could crop small trees and bushes helping to maintain the plains as an ideal hunting habitat for these large flying reptiles.

Loose relationships such as these can be observed on the Savannah of Africa with herds of Zebra tolerating Ostriches, as the bird’s sharp eyes can help to keep watch for predators, permitting the Zebras to remain with their heads down for longer grazing.

The Azhdarchidae

Escaping from any potential threats could pose a problem for such large pterosaurs, it had been thought that these animals needed to live by cliffs so that their take-off could be assisted by gusts of wind rising from natural obstacles.  It has also been suggested that these animals used thermals, hot air rising from the land to help them gain altitude in a manner similar to vultures and birds such as condors.  Being able to take to the air was perhaps their only effective means of defence against predators.  Although the largest species of Azhdarchidae so far described Q. northropi had a wingspan of 11-12 metres it weighed little more than 80-90 kilogrammes, so it would have been no match even for a small or sub-adult member of the tyrannosaur family.  The relatively long hind-limbs could have been quite powerful and capable of providing the impetus and initial lift to help these animals take to the air, but again the fragmentary fossil evidence of the Azhdarchidae prevents much further work on the muscle mass associated with the femur or the bones of the lower leg.

The More Typical Pose of an Azhdarchid Pterosaur

A model of the giant Pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture above shows a model of a Quetzalcoatlus a typical large, long-necked azhdarchid pterosaur of the Late Cretaceous.

To view a range of prehistoric animal models including pterosaur figures: Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Models.

Despite the lack of fossils it is now known that the azhdarchids had a substantial geographic distribution.  Fossils have been found in China, Japan, Jordan, Morocco, Russia, Senegal, Spain, North America and Uzbekistan.  Indeed, this type of pterosaur was named from the Uzbek word for dragon.

Dr Naish said: “Azhdarchids first became reasonably well known in the 1970s but how they lived has been the subject of much debate. Originally described as vulture-like scavengers, they were later suggested to be mud-probers (sticking their long bills into the ground in search of prey), and later still suggested to make a living by flying over the water’s surface, grabbing fish.

Other lifestyles have been suggested too. These lifestyles all seem radically divergent so Mark and I sat down and carefully examined the evidence and we argue that azhdarchids were specialised terrestrial stalkers. All the details of their anatomy, and the environment their fossils are found in, show that they made their living by walking around, reaching down to grab and pick up animals and other prey.”

The two researchers studied fossils in London, Portsmouth and Germany and compared the anatomy of azhdarchids with those of modern animals, that fill the sort of ecological niches previously thought to have been occupied by the azhdarchids in the Campanian and Maastrichtian faunal stages of the Late Cretaceous.  This showed that azhdarchids were strikingly different from mud-probers and animals that grab prey from the water’s surface while in flight.

Dr Naish said: “We also worked out the range of motion possible in the azhdarchid neck: this bizarrely stiff neck has previously been a problem for other ideas about azhdarchid lifestyle, but it fits with our model depicting this group as terrestrial stalkers”.

This particular group of pterosaurs have characteristically long-necks which are relatively stiff and immobile.  Such an anatomical arrangement would fit the hypothesis put forward by Mark Witton and Dr Naish as with a terrestrial, stalking habit all these animals would need to do to feed would be to raise and lower the beak in a vertical line to the ground.  Studies of the bones in neck vertebrae indicate that they could certainly do this.  The necks were also quite strong, able to support the head and a beak up to 1 metre long in the larger species, certainly some of these neck vertebrae were an impressive size, a single neck vertebrae, discovered in Jordan in 1943 and believed to have belonged to an azhdarchid was over 60 cm long.

Strong but Inflexible Necks

The strong, inflexible neck also provides evidence to support another theory about the diet of these animals, that they were scavengers operating like vultures.  The huge wings allowing them to glide effortless across the land, coupled with their excellent eye-sight would have made them superb spotters of carrion.  Once found, the carcase could be ripped open by a few strong blows of that strong, dagger-like beak.  These pterosaurs if they were scavengers living on the remains of dinosaurs would have had to break through many centimetres of tough hide to reach the flesh underneath.  The sharp beaks, powered by strong neck muscles could be capable of doing this. A long neck would enable these creatures to reach deep inside a carcase to feed.

In the scientific paper published today other aspects of azhdarchid anatomy are discussed.  Consideration is given to their relatively small padded feet which the British researchers claim would not have been suited to walking around the muddy shores of lakes, probing for burrowing shellfish and crabs.  This work casts further doubt on the mud-probers hypothesis.

In their study the researchers calculated that over 50% of all the known azhdarchid fossils are from sediments laid down inland, away from marine environments.  Significantly, the few articulated azhdarchid fossils have all been discovered in areas believed to have been a long way from saltwater when the animal perished.  The relative completeness of these finds indicate that the carcase may not have been transported very far before finally coming to rest and starting the preservation process.  This might show that the azhdarchids were very much creatures of the land and not marine environments.

From our own observations of birds such as the Marabou stork (Leptoptilos crumeniferus) on the Masai Mara, it is possible to imagine animals such as the azhdarchids filling this niche in the food chain.  Although it is worth pointing out that in the case of the Marabou stork, it scavenges carcases as well as actively hunting in the grass and reed beds of Africa.  Perhaps the azhdarchids such as Quetzalcoatlus and its close relative Montanazhdarcho were also opportunists grabbing a meal in a variety of ways.  If they were warm-blooded and this is quite likely given the pterosaur ability to fly, then they would have had to consume perhaps as much as ten times the food of a similar sized cold-blooded animal like one of the large crocodiles that also lived at the end of the Mesozoic.

No doubt the debate will continue for sometime to come.  The paucity of the fossil record for large pterosaurs does not help, there have been several attempts to review the Azhdarchidae in order to establish relationships between genera.  What is compounding the problem is that scientists are not really sure of the size of many genera so far described, many from only fragmentary remains.  For example, a single bone from the Dinosaur Provincial Park Formation in Alberta, Canada could be a femur indicating an animal with a wingspan of no more than 3 metres across.  However, if the same bone is described as a wing metacarpal, or an arm bone (ulna or radius) then with a bone diameter in excess of 60 mm this would indicate an immense animal with a wingspan approaching the size of the largest pterosaurs known (wingspan in excess of 12 metres).

Such are the difficulties that surround research into these amazing animals.  Work on the Campanian faunal stage deposits in Alberta indicates the presence of a least three genera of azhdarchid, with wingspans from 2.5 to up to 11 metres across all living in the same area at the same time.  However, the incomplete and scarce remains recovered so far mean that palaeontologists are unable to rule out the possibility that the pterosaur fossils found in this area actually represent just one genus and that the bones represent animals of different ages or perhaps even males and females.  Bennett (1992) has made a convincing case for sexual dimorphism in Pteranodon, with males believed to be up to twice the size of adult females.

The truth is, until many more fossils of azhdarchids are found then the speculation on their diet and lifestyle and even some aspects of their basic anatomy are going to continue.  Ten years ago for instance, Clark et all published a paper on a study of the posture of pterosaurs, this team concluded that the metatarsal-phalangeal joints of the azhdarchids (those bones that connect the ankle to the toes) did not seem well suited to a cursorial lifestyle.

This article has been produced using material from the Public Library of Science (2008, May 28) – Giant Flying Reptiles Preferred To Walk.

The work of Bennett referred to in the text is from a paper published in 1992 in the Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology – Sexual dimorphism of Pteranodon and other Pterosaurs with Comments on Cranial Crests.

Britain’s most Complete Dinosaur Found to Date ready to go on Display

The most complete dinosaur fossil ever to be found in the United Kingdom is about to go on display at the Bristol museum.  The fossil is of a Scelidosaurus, an early armoured dinosaur that dates from the Jurassic.

A Magnificent Specimen

This magnificent specimen of this plant-eater, is nearly complete, a rare find indeed when it is considered that in comparison to other ornithopods these animal’s remains are very scarce in the fossil record.  The lack of fossil evidence relating to these creatures could be for a number of reasons, perhaps these herbivores were associated with environments in which the likelihood of fossil preservation would be low, dry, upland areas for example.  The small number of fossils could also be due simply to the fact that compared with other megafauna around at the time, these types of dinosaurs only made up a small proportion of the animal community.  Such relatively rare animals would be statistically less likely to be fossilised.  Certainly, there is speculation as to the habitat of these armoured dinosaurs, with scelidosaurs being associated with marine deposits, the exceptional quality of the specimen going on display has provided scientists with lots of new data to assist in our understanding of these dinosaurs.

To read more about scelidosaurs: Scelidosaurus – a uniquely British dinosaur.

In pictures that have been released, the snout is facing to the left, with the animal’s eye socket in a direct line between the tip of the fingers on the researcher’s right hand.  The teeth can clearly be seen in the photograph, they are leaf shaped and the fossilised wear pattern indicate that Scelidosaurus had a peculiar feeding habit.  The plant food, probably low lying ferns was crushed in the mouth before being swallowed.  Perhaps not the most energy efficient way of eating and not nearly as sophisticated a process such as the feeding of the later ceratopsians, iguanodonts and the hadrosaurs.  This relatively primitive chewing process could perhaps explain why there are so few fossil skeletons of this type of dinosaur about.

An Illustration of Scelidosaurus (S. harrisoni)

An illustration of the Early Jurassic armoured dinosaur Sceliodosaurus.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Although permineralised, specimens of almost complete skeletons such as this are extremely rare and delicate.  It is interesting to note that the researcher is wearing rubber gloves when handling the fossil.  Our fingers tend to be acidic and this can damage the surface of fossils, after all many of them are preserved in limestone and this is dissolved by acidic substances.  It is best not to handle fossils a great deal, or indeed to pick up a specimen by the fossil element itself, pick it up by the surrounding matrix if there is any present.  Fossils like this Scelidosaurus need to be looked after, they stopped making them around 175 million years ago!

Everything Dinosaur stocks a range of armoured dinosaurs including a replica of Scelidosaurus in the CollectA Deluxe range: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric World Dinosaur Models.