Researchers have named a new genus and species of rhabdodontomorph ornithopod from fossil material found in southeastern France. The dinosaur has been named Obelignathus septimanicus. The genus name was inspired by the French cartoon strip character Obélix from the Asterix the Gaul series, and the Latin word for jaw. Obélix is known for his exceptional strength and robust appearance. This is a reference to the unusually robustly built holotype dentary.

The researchers conclude that rhabdodontomorphs were more diverse in Europe than previously recognised.

A silhouette of the recently described 2025 ornithopod Obelignathus septimanicus from the Grès à Reptiles Formation in southern France. Scale bar equals 50 cm. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Obelignathus septimanicus

The origins and early diversification of the Ornithopoda is poorly understood.  For instance, the phylogeny of the Rhabdodontidae, a family of medium-sized ornithischian dinosaurs known solely from the Upper Cretaceous of Europe remains unresolved.  Current studies suggest eight or nine species, all of which are known from the upper Campanian to lower Maastrichtian of Europe.

Writing in the journal “Scientific Reports”, the researchers compiled a novel dataset made up from a morphological assessment and measurements of rhabdodontomorph dentaries.  The robust dentary (specimen number MDE D30) when first described in 1991 (Buffetaut and Le Loeuff), was thought to represent the genus Rhabdodon. However, it was sufficiently different to warrant its own species – Rhabdodon septimanicus. This latest analysis places R. septimanicus well outside the genus Rhabdodon and hence, a new genus has been erected.

Obelignathus is found to be a clear morphological outlier among European rhabdodontomorphs.  The research team members conclude that further large-scale studies are required to clarify the taxonomy of European rhabdodontomorphs.  These results indicate that this group of ornithopods exhibit greater diversity than currently recognised.  Several taxa appear to be coeval.

In common with most other rhabdodonts Obelignathus was relatively small. It is thought to have measured under three metres in length.

A New Herbivore from Late Cretaceous France

The find underscores southern France’s importance as a hotspot for Late Cretaceous dinosaur diversity. As fieldwork continues, Obelignathus offers a glimpse into the complex web of life that once thrived on the European archipelago.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the open access scientific paper in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Exploring the diversity and disparity of rhabdodontomorph ornithopods from the Late Cretaceous European archipelago” by Łukasz Czepiński and Daniel Madzia published in Scientific Reports.

For models of ornithopods and other dinosaurs: Dinosaur Models.

A remarkable fossilised ichthyosaur flipper has provided new insights into the hunting behaviour of ancient marine reptiles.  The study, published in the journal “Nature” reveals that the giant ichthyosaur Temnodontosaurus trigonodon relied on stealth whilst hunting in the darkness. The metre-long front flipper was equipped with flow control structures that probably served to suppress self-generated noise as this megapredator hunted in dimly lit pelagic environments.

Life reconstruction of the giant Jurassic ichthyosaur Temnodontosaurus trigonodon hunting in the depths. The artwork highlights the winglike flipper, and the unusual structures observed in the fin. Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe.

Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe

Temnodontosaurus trigonodon Flipper Study

Temnodontosaurus was a large ichthyosaur. Size estimates vary, however, some individuals may have exceeded ten metres in length. Researchers have named several species within the genus. While fragmentary remains of unusual “fish lizards” had previously been excavated along the Dorset coast, it was the discovery of a metre-long skull by Joseph Anning at Lyme Regis in the autumn of 1811—followed by vertebrae and ribs found by 13-year-old Mary Anning in 1812 that prompted the first formal scientific study and description of an ichthyosaur. More than two centuries later, these enigmatic marine reptiles continue to yield unexpected insights and discoveries.

The fossilised flipper (specimen number SSN8DOR11) was collected from a temporary exposure of dark, laminated limestone (Lower Toarcian Posidonia Shale) of southwestern Germany. The partial front flipper preserves soft tissue structures and has been studied by an international team of researchers led by Dr Johan Lindgren from Lund University in Sweden.  The research was undertaken in collaboration with Dr Dean Lomax, an 1851 Research Fellow at the University of Bristol, who has been working on the fossil for about six years. Dr Lomax is one of the world’s leading ichthyosaur experts.

Dr Dean Lomax and Dr Johan Lindgren, together with fellow researcher Sven Sachs, examining one part of the Temnodontosaurus trigonodon flipper at Lund University, Sweden. Picture credit: Katrin Sachs.

Picture credit: Katrin Sachs

Dr Lindgren, who has pioneered research into marine reptile soft tissues commented:

“The wing-like shape of the flipper, together with the lack of bones in the distal end and distinctly serrated trailing edge collectively indicate that this massive animal had evolved means to minimise sound production during swimming. Accordingly, this ichthyosaur must have moved almost silently through the water, in a manner similar to how living owls—whose wing feathers also form a zigzag pattern—fly quietly when hunting at night. We have never seen such elaborate evolutionary adaptations in a marine animal before.”

The remarkable fossil flipper specimen (SSN8DOR11) shown left, under UV light (centre) and in a line drawing (right). Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren.

Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren

“Silent Swimming”

Although there are many exceptional ichthyosaur specimens with soft-tissue preservation, most soft tissues are associated with the fossilised remains of much smaller dolphin-sized species.  This is a remarkable discovery, it represents the first-ever soft tissues associated with a large-bodied ichthyosaur. In addition, the research team have identified unique structures never observed before in an aquatic animal.  The crenulated trailing edge of the wing-shaped flipper being reinforced by novel, mineralised, rod-like structures.  The researchers have named these structures “chondroderms”.

Dr Dean Lomax, who is also a palaeontologist at the University of Manchester, said:

“The first time I saw the specimen, I knew it was unique. Having examined thousands of ichthyosaurs, I had never seen anything quite like it. This discovery will revolutionise the way we look at and reconstruct ichthyosaurs (and possibly also other ancient marine reptiles) but specifically soft-tissue structures in prehistoric animals.”

Novel cartilaginous integumentary structures. To the left, light micrograph of the crenulated trailing edge in SSN8DOR11. Note that each serration is supported by a centrally located chondroderm. To the right, magnified image of a distal chondroderm. Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren.

Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren

The team postulate that this huge predator relied on underwater stealth, or “silent swimming” while hunting in the depths, in much the same way that owls as nocturnal predators have almost silent flight.

Eyes as Big as Footballs

Temnodontosaurus had the largest eyes of any vertebrate known.  The eye sockets of some specimens are more than twenty-five centimetres in diameter.  These huge eyes lend further support to the theory that Temnodontosaurus hunted under low-light conditions, either at night or in deep waters.

Spectacular, 183-million-year-old soft-tissue fossil (SSN8DOR11; Paläontologisches Museum Nierstein, Nierstein, Germany): an isolated wing-like front flipper of the giant predatory ichthyosaur Temnodontosaurus (T. trigonodon). Photograph (left) and shown under UV light (centre). Line drawing (right) providing a representation of the metre-long flipper. Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren.

Picture credit: Randolph G. De La Garza, Martin Jarenmark and Johan Lindgren

The remarkable fossilised flipper was discovered by fossil collector Georg Göltz, a co-author on the new study. Amazingly, Georg made the find entirely by chance whilst looking for fossils at a temporary exposure at a road cutting in the municipality of Dotternhausen, Germany. The fossil consists of both the part and counterpart (opposing sides) of almost an entire front flipper.  Georg continued to look for more remains, but no other fossil material was found.

As the proximal part of the fin is absent, it has been speculated that the flipper could have been ripped off by an even larger ichthyosaur.  The specimen was shown to palaeontologist and study co-author Sven Sachs (Natural History Museum, Bielefeld).  Dr Sachs immediately recognised the rarity of the find.

A multidisciplinary research team employed a variety of sensitive imaging, elemental and molecular analyses to examine the unique preserved structures. This involved high-end techniques such as synchrotron radiation-based X-ray microtomography at the Swiss Light Source SLS at PSI and Diamond Light Source, time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry and infrared microspectroscopy, along with the reconstruction of a virtual model using computational fluid dynamics.

To recreate the stealth hunting behaviours of a marine reptile that lived more than 180 million years ago is remarkable. Furthermore, by studying the fin morphology, scientists could find ways of reducing our impact on modern marine soundscapes.

Going Back to Mary Anning

For Dr Dean Lomax, this astonishing study harks all the way to back to the days of pioneering palaeontologist Mary Anning and her older brother Joseph.

He stated:

“In a weird way, I feel that there is a wonderful full-circle moment that goes back to Mary Anning showcasing that even after two hundred years, we are still uncovering exciting and surprising finds that link back to her initial discoveries.”

Dr Lomax added:

“The fossil provides new information on the flipper soft tissues of this enormous leviathan. It has structures never seen in any animal, and reveals a unique hunting strategy thus providing evidence of its behaviour, all combined with the fact that its noise-reducing features may even help us to reduce human-made noise pollution. Although I might be a little bias, in my opinion, this represents one of the greatest fossil discoveries ever made.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the University of Bristol in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Adaptations for stealth in the wing-like flippers of a large ichthyosaur” by Johan Lindgren, Dean R. Lomax, Robert-Zoltán Szász, Miguel Marx, Johan Revstedt, Georg Göltz, Sven Sachs, Randolph G. De La Garza, Miriam Heingård, Martin Jarenmark, Kristina Ydström, Peter Sjövall, Frank Osbæck, Stephen A. Hall, Michiel Op de Beeck, Mats E. Eriksson, Carl Alwmark, Federica Marone, Alexander Liptak, Robert Atwood, Genoveva Burca, Per Uvdal, Per Persson and Dan-Eric Nilsson published in the journal Nature.

Visit the website of the award-winning palaeontologist and author Dr Dean Lomax: Palaeontologist Dr Dean Lomax.

Researchers have described a new species of Late Triassic pterosaur.  It has been named Eotephradactylus mcintireae and it represents North America’s oldest known flying reptile. A field team led by the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History and Columbia College Chicago discovered the fossil remains. They were exploring outcrops of the Owl Rock Member of the Chinle Formation in north-eastern Arizona. They come from an unusual bonebed that preserves the remains of a variety of Late Triassic vertebrates. The assemblage provides evidence of animals that persisted into the Jurassic co-existing with archaic lineages such as phytosaurs, armoured aetosauriforms and ancient temnospondyls.

The bonebed provides a snapshot of an ecosystem prior to the End Triassic Mass Extinction event.

North America’s oldest pterosaur described to date Eotephradactylus mcintireae disturbs some frogs whilst catching a ray-finned fish. An early tortoise is seen in the background and the bones of an armoured crocodilian are visible. Picture credit: Brian Engh.

Picture credit: Brian Engh

Eotephradactylus mcintireae – North America’s Oldest Pterosaur

The study has been published in the “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.”  The pterosaur fossils identified from the bonebed include a partial left mandible (lower jaw), isolated teeth and a phalanx (digit bone).  The fossils are approximately 209 million years old (Norian faunal stage of the Late Triassic).

Corresponding author Ben Kligman (Peter Buck Postdoctoral Fellow at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History), stated:

“The site captures the transition to more modern terrestrial vertebrate communities where we start seeing groups that thrive later in the Mesozoic living alongside these older animals that don’t make it past the Triassic. Fossil beds like these enable us to establish that all of these animals actually lived together.”

Kay Behrensmeyer (left), the curator of vertebrate palaeontology at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History. Robin Whatley (right), professor and associate dean at Columbia College Chicago in the Petrified Forest National Park digging for fossils in a quarry in 2023. Picture credit: Ben Kligman, (Smithsonian).

Picture credit: Ben Kligman (Smithsonian)

“Ash-winged Dawn Goddess”

The genus name translates as “ash-winged dawn goddess”, it references the location’s volcanic ash layers and the pterosaur’s position as a basal member of the Pterosauria family tree. The species name honours preparator Suzanne McIntire, who discovered the fossil material in 2013 when preparing a block from the site.

The pterosaur fossil was unearthed by preparator Suzanne McIntire, a volunteer at the museum’s FossiLab for eighteen years. Picture credit: Bill King.

Picture credit: Bill King

The Owl Rock Member

The Owl Rock Member strata are some of the least explored parts of the Petrified Forest National Park.  The extensive volcanic ash layers in the quarry, permitted the scientists to calculate the age of the bonebed.  It represents the remains of an ecosystem that existed around 209 million years ago (Norian faunal stage of the Late Triassic).  These are some of the geologically youngest sediments in the Petrified Forest National Park.

In the Late Triassic, Arizona was positioned in the central part of the supercontinent Pangaea. The area was just north of the equator. It was a low-lying, semi-arid environment criss-crossed with small river channels and prone to seasonal floods. The bonebed likely preserves the remains of a community of animals that were caught up in a flash flood.

The bonebed is rich vertebrate fossils. So many fossils were found that excavating them in the field was impossible. Field team members took large chunks of rock, entombed in plaster jackets back to the preparation laboratory at the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. Volunteers spent thousands of hours carefully excavating the fossil material.

Ben Kligman (right), a Peter Buck Postdoctoral Fellow at the Smithsonian’s National Museum of Natural History with several of the museum’s FossiLab volunteers who contributed to the study of the fossils from the bonebed. Richard Cline (far left), Hillary Cochard, James Morrison and far right Lynn Sharp. Picture credit: Abby Telfer, (Smithsonian).

Picture credit: Abby Telfer (Smithsonian)

A Diverse Community of the Familiar and Not So Familiar

The gull-sized pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae shared its home with a huge variety of other vertebrates. Some of these animals would be familiar to us, others represent taxa that did not survive into the Jurassic. For example, coelacanths swam in the rivers along with freshwater sharks.  In addition, frogs were present and an ancient tortoise.

The tortoise fossils are of particular interest. They are some of the world’s oldest tortoise remains. The tortoise had a robust shell, with protruding spikes for additional protection. Stem members of the Testudinata clade (reptiles with a true carapace and plastron shell) are known from the Late Triassic. For instance, the genus Proterochersis was present in Germany and Poland and is roughly contemporaneous with the Owl Rock Member biota.

Ben Kligman commented:

“This suggests that turtles rapidly dispersed across Pangaea, which is surprising for an animal that is not very large and is likely walking at a slow pace.”

Animals that are familiar to us today coexisted with animals that were very different to modern faunas.  For example, whilst relatives of New Zealand’s tuatara were present (rhynchocephalians), there were also giant, ancient amphibians, aetosaurs and phytosaurs.

Over 1,200 Fossils Including the Pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae

The team has uncovered more than 1,200 individual fossils. They include bones, teeth, fish scales and coprolites. Sixteen different types of vertebrate were identified from this single bonebed indicating a diverse ecosystem.  Amongst these fossils were the remains of North America’s oldest known pterosaur Eotephradactylus mcintireae.  Its discovery motivates research teams to continue to explore the remote and difficult to access Owl Rock Member exposures.

Suzanne McIntire reflecting on the significance of her discovery said:

“What was exciting about uncovering this specimen was that the teeth were still in the bone, so I knew the animal would be much easier to identify.”

The teeth provide important clues to the pterosaur’s diet; the worn-down crowns suggest it was durophagous, adapted for consuming hard-shelled prey.  The researchers conclude that this flying reptile fed on the site’s fish. Ray-finned fish are known from this locality (actinopterygians).  Many had armour-like scales, and a diet of these types of fish would have resulted in extensive tooth wear.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release by the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Unusual bone bed reveals a vertebrate community with pterosaurs and turtles in equatorial Pangaea before the end-Triassic extinction” by Ben T. Kligman, Robin L. Whatley, Jahandar Ramezani, Adam D. Marsh, Tyler R. Lyson, Adam J. Fitch, William G. Parker and Anna K. Behrensmeyer published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Pterosaur and Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists have named and described a new species of herrerasaurian dinosaur from India.  The dinosaur which measured around three to four metres in length has been named Maleriraptor kuttyi. It fills a temporal gap between South American herrerasaurid dinosaurs and their younger relatives from North America. Herrerasaurs from South America are around nine million years older than herrerasaurs known from the Northern Hemisphere.  The discovery of M. kuttyi shows that herrerasaurs survived in Gondwana at least during the early Norian after the extinction event that led to the demise of the rhynchosaurs.

A skeletal drawing of the newly described herrerasaur from India Maleriraptor kuttyi. The shaded bones indicate known fossil material. Scale bar equals 1 metre. Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science (Maurício Silva Garcia).

Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science/Maurício Silva Garcia

Maleriraptor kuttyi

The fossilised remains of Maleriraptor kuttyi were collected more than four decades ago from the Upper Maleri Formation in Pranhita-Godavari Valley, less than half a mile south of the village of Annaram in south-central India.  It is known from fragmentary material. The fossil remains consist of the first sacral vertebra, part of the second sacral rib, a vertebra representing a caudosacral element or the first in the caudal series, a single anterior (close to the base of the tail) caudal vertebra. In addition, the right ilium, both ends of the right pubis, and part of the left pubis have been identified.

The genus name is derived from the Upper Maleri Formation, in which the holotype and only known specimen was collected, and the Greek word raptor, meaning thief, which is an ending commonly used for theropod genera. The species name commemorates the late T. S. Kutty, who discovered the holotype and co-authored its preliminary description with some of the authors of the recently published study.

Geographic and stratigraphic occurrence of Maleriraptor kuttyi. Palaeomap of the Late Triassic depicting the occurrences of the herrerasaurs (a). Overview of the Gondwana basins in India (b), with the Pranhita-Godavari valley highlighted and (c) detailed geological map of a portion of the Pranhita-Godavari valley indicating the type localities of the nominal dinosaur species of the Upper Maleri Formation. Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science.

Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science

Herrerasaurids Surviving into the Norian

The deposition of the Upper Maleri Formation probably occurred shortly after the extinction of rhynchosaurs, which are abundantly recorded in the Lower Maleri Formation, but completely unknown from the geologically younger Upper Maleri Formation.

Mike from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Maleriraptor kuttyi demonstrates that herrerasaurs survived in Gondwana after the extinction event that wiped out the once abundant and geographically widespread herbivorous rhynchosaurs.”

The researchers conclude that this newly described Indian herrerasaur fills a temporal gap between the Carnian South American herrerasaurids and the younger middle Norian-Rhaetian herrerasaurs of North America.

The scientific paper: “A new herrerasaurian dinosaur from the Upper Triassic Upper Maleri Formation of south-central India” by Martín D Ezcurra, Maurício Silva Garcia, Fernando E Novas, Rodrigo Temp Müller, Federico L Agnolín and Sankar Chatterjee published by the Royal Society Open Science.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Prehistoric Animal Models.

Scientists writing in the academic journal “Cretaceous Research” have described theropod dinosaur remains from Lower Cretaceous deposits in Spain.  The fossils come from the province of Soria. They represent theropods excavated from the Western Cameros sub-basin.  Ironically, it is the eastern parts of the Cameros sub-basin that have yielded the majority of theropod remains.  In addition to mapping the Early Cretaceous theropod record, the researchers report evidence of a giant spinosaurid from this region.  Known as the Zorralbo I baryonychine, it is the largest Lower Cretaceous theropod described to date from Iberia.

The Zorralbo I baryonychine size estimate. Human figure provides the scale. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The Zorralbo I Baryonychine

In the Cameros Basin, theropods have been mostly documented in the Eastern Cameros sub-basin with baryonychine spinosaurids dominating the theropod biota. Theropods are much rarer in the Western Cameros sub-basin.  The authors describe fossils from the Western Cameros sub-basin, recovered in the upper Hauterivian–lower Barremian Golmayo Formation of the Soria province. Specifically, the theropod remains come from the Los Caños and Zorralbo I sites, which are located in the Las Camaretas and the Zorralbo areas, respectively, south-east of the main town of Golmayo.

The theropod record from the Iberian Peninsula is highly fragmentary.  However, in this paper, the authors identified the presence of three early-branching members of the Tetanurae along with three baryonychine dental morphotypes.  In addition, an enormous spinosaurid was identified.  Anatomical and phylogenetic study of the skull, post-cranial and appendicular (limb) bones suggest that this huge spinosaurid is also likely to be a baryonychine.

Whereas the Early Cretaceous theropod record is represented by carcharodontosaurians, coelurosaurians and tetanurans, it is the spinosaurids that are the most prominent.  Spinosaurs seem to be the dominant theropods of these Lower Cretaceous deposits.

Five Spinosauridae Genera

To date, five spinosaurid genera have been described from the Iberian Peninsula.  Although, there are many more genera likely to be present.

The five members of the Spinosauridae described so far:

• Iberospinus natarioi – to read our blog post about this theropod: A New Spinosaurus from Portugal.
• Protathlitis cinctorrensis – our blog post about this new dinosaur: Protathlitis – Member of the Spinosauridae Family.
• Riojavenatrix lacustris – named in 2024 (Isasmendi et al).
• Vallibonavenatrix cani – named in 2019 (Malafaia et al).
• Camarillasaurus cirugedae – named in 2014 (Sánchez-Hernández and Benton).

The Cameros Basin could provide an excellent analogue for the theropod biota of the Iberian Peninsula.

The scientific paper: “A giant spinosaurid from the Iberian Peninsula and new data on the Early Cretaceous Iberian non-avian theropod palaeodiversity” by Erik Isasmendi, Elena Cuesta, Adrián Páramo and Xabier Pereda-Suberbiola published in Cretaceous Research.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Models and Toys.

Researchers have described a new species of non-cerapodan neornithischian from the famous Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western United States.  The dinosaur has been named Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae.  It is the most complete three-dimensionally preserved small ornithischian from the Morrison Formation known to date.  In addition, it is likely that there are numerous other small-bodied dinosaurs awaiting discovery.  The researchers, writing in the academic journal Royal Society Open Science conclude that small ornithischians are probably underrepresented.  Although the fossil record of these small dinosaurs is poor, Morrison Formation ornithischian species richness was likely higher than currently accepted.

A skeletal reconstruction (a) and (b) speculative life appearance of Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae. The shaded areas in the skeletal reconstruction represent known fossil material. Picture credit: Artwork by Bob Nicholls.

Picture credit: Artwork by Bob Nicholls (published in Royal Society Open Science)

Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae

The fossil material consists of a partial skeleton consisting of appendicular elements (limb bones), cervical, dorsal and caudal vertebrae, hip bones and three teeth. It was found on privately owned land (Moffat County, Colorado) and excavated by a commercial fossil collecting company. The fossil specimen now named NHMUK PV R 39000 was acquired by the London Natural History Museum in 2024.

The genus name is derived from “Enigma” which means puzzle or mystery. This is in reference to the convoluted taxonomic history of small-bodied ornithischian dinosaurs associated with the Morrison Formation. Furthermore, the genus name is derived from the Latin “cursor” for runner in recognition of the dinosaur’s elongated hind limbs and feet, adaptations for fast running. The species name honours Molly Borthwick. Her generous donation allowed the London Natural History Museum to purchase the specimen.

A Subadult Specimen

The Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae fossils probably represent a subadult.  Even when fully grown this dinosaur was tiny when compared to Morrison Formation giants such as Brontosaurus, Diplodocus, Apatosaurus and Stegosaurus.  It is thought that this dinosaur measured around 1.8 metres in length with a head height of approximately 65 centimetres.  Its tail was probably longer than the rest of its body.

The elongated feet (pedes) of the newly described (2025) non-cerapodan neornithischian E. mollyborthwickae. The feet and long hind limbs indicate that this small dinosaur was a fast runner. Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science.

Picture credit: Royal Society Open Science

The picture (above) shows the reconstructed feet (pedes) of Enigmacursor.  The right foot (pes) is represented in images a to c, whereas the left pes is shown in images d to f.

Key

Pedes of specimen number NHMUK PV R 39000, Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae, in (a–c) right pes; (d–f) left pes.  Proximal views (a and d).  Anterior/flexor views (b and e).  Posterior/plantar views (c and f).  Note that MT equals metatarsal and that the greyed-out areas indicate reconstruction.  Scale bars for b, c, e and f equal five cm. In contrast, the scale bars for images a and d are two cm.

Living Alongside Giants

Although the remains of small, cursorial ornithischian dinosaurs from the Morrison Formation have been known about for over 150 years, most of the 19th and early 20th century specimens are poorly preserved and incomplete. These dinosaurs have tended to be overlooked as palaeontologists focused on the larger taxa present. Many of these small ornithischians are designated nomina dubia. This means that any scientific name applied is doubtful and likely to be invalid.

Small dinosaurs from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation are not the only extinct animals to suffer from this form of bias. When modern ecosystems are studied, it is very notable that living alongside the megafauna there is a whole array of smaller animals.  It is likely that ecosystems in the Mesozoic were similar with many more types of small dinosaur (under one hundred kilograms), living amongst much larger animals.

To read a related article about a small, almost overlooked pachycephalosaur: A New Bone-headed Dinosaur is Scientifically Described.

Fortunately, the fossils of Enigmacursor will have the opportunity to take centre stage.  This little dinosaur is part of a new exhibit at the London Natural History Museum.  This is the first new fossil dinosaur exhibit at the Museum for eleven years.  Ironically, the last new dinosaur exhibit at the Museum was a contemporary of E. mollyborthwickae.  In 2014, the London Natural History Museum opened a new exhibit featuring a Stegosaurus.

Right lateral View of “Sophie” the Stegosaurus (London Natural History Museum). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the Royal Society open access paper in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Enigmacursor mollyborthwickae, a neornithischian dinosaur from the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of the western USA” by Susannah C. R. Maidment and Paul M. Barrett published by Royal Society Open Science.

The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Models.

It is the end of this year’s excavation season for Bromacker project team members. The excavations at the world-famous Bromacker fossil site in Thuringia (Germany) have been a success. A layer of fossils bones, small skeletons and an ash layer suitable for age determination promise new insights into the 290-million-year-old ecosystem of the Bromacker locality.  In just eighteen days, over fourteen hundred volunteers participated in the field work. Congratulations to everyone involved in this exciting project.

Field team members working on the Bromacker project (June 2025). Picture credit: Bromacker Projektteam.

Picture credit: Bromacker Projektteam

A Successful Conclusion to this Year’s Bromacker Project Field Work

The Bromacker location is one of the world’s most significant fossil sites documenting an Early Permian terrestrial ecosystem. An international research team consisting of palaeontology and geology experts, including students, technical staff and science communicators, has been excavating at the Bromacker locality for several weeks every year since 2020. The Museum für Naturkunde Berlin, the Friedrich Schiller University Jena, the Friedenstein Foundation Gotha, and the UNESCO Global Geopark Thuringia Inselsberg – Drei Gleichen are involved in the project.

To read an earlier blog post about the discovery of fossilised skin impressions at the site: Early Synapsids and Skin Impressions.

Approximately fifty researchers from six countries took part in this year’s excavation work. Over two hundred and fifty fossils were recovered from the site.

Project and excavation manager Prof Jörg Fröbisch (Museum für Naturkunde Berlin) is extremely pleased with the new finds.

He commented:

“This year’s excavation at Bromacker was once again a huge success and has revealed completely new aspects. This again includes numerous and varied finds of prehistoric bones, trace fossils, invertebrates and plants. The discovery of an extensive bone layer and two small skeletons, possibly from early reptiles, is particularly exciting. We have also examined one of the massive sandstone beds for the first time and discovered vertebrate burrow systems and plant remains. The identification of an ash layer is also spectacular, which we hope will allow us to determine the exact age of the find layers for the first time.”

The Free State of Thuringia is continuing the funding until the middle of 2026. With the continuation of excavations, preparation, collection management and various educational programmes and communication formats for the general public, the future of the UNESCO World Heritage status of the Thuringia Inselsberg – Drei Gleichen Geopark is secured.

Dr Tom Hübner (Friedenstein Foundation Gotha), is delighted with this news.

Dr Hübner added:

“The new commitment of the state of Thuringia to the Bromacker is of particular significance and underlines the importance of this unique fossil site for the region and far beyond. We are particularly pleased that the recently approved funding will make it possible to carry out another excavation next year.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys and Models.

A new species of tyrannosauroid described by scientists as a “missing link” sheds new light on the evolution of Late Cretaceous tyrannosaurs.  The dinosaur, named Khankhuuluu mongoliensis represents a transitional form between the small, gracile early tyrannosauroids and the giant, bone-crushing, apex predators such as Daspletosaurus and Tyrannosaurus rex.  The large tyrannosaurs from the end of the Cretaceous (Campanian and Maastrichtian) have been intensively studied.  However, the evolutionary origins of these super-sized theropods remains poorly understood.  It is known that these dinosaurs evolved from much smaller ancestors.  The discovery of Khankhuuluu (pronounced: khan-KOO-loo), helps palaeontologists to fill in a gap between these ancestral forms and the Late Cretaceous giants.

Khankhuuluu mongoliensis represents a transitional form between small tyrannosauroids of the early Late Cretaceous and the giants of Campanian and Maastrichtian. Yes, I know Maastrichtian is not correct in the diagram :). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Khankhuuluu mongoliensis

A team of researchers led by scientists from the University of Calgary (Alberta) have described a new species of tyrannosauroid from the Upper Cretaceous Bayanshiree Formation of southeastern Mongolia. University of Calgary PhD student Jared Voris found unique autapomorphies in two fossil specimens that had been assigned to the tyrannosauroid Alectrosaurus. For example, an air cavity was identified in the nasal bone and the student found other traits that indicate this dinosaur was evolving the skull anatomy that would generate immense bite forces.

Phylogenetic analysis suggests that K. mongoliensis sits just outside the Eutyrannosauria. This is the clade which contains giant tyrannosaurs such as Gorgosaurus, Lythronax, Tarbosaurus and T. rex as well as, smaller more lightly built predators.

The Eutyrannosauria is split into two tribes:

• Alioramini (for example Qianzhousaurus and Alioramus): smaller, slender, shallow-skulled forms.
• Tyrannosaurini (for example Tyrannosaurus rex): massive, deep-skulled forms.

Khankhuuluu and the Alioramini both share certain traits. They are lightly built, have long hind limbs and shallow skulls.  These characteristics are seen in juvenile specimens of the giant tyrannosaurs such as Tarbosaurus and T. rex. These traits evolved due to heterochrony, meaning changes in the timing of growth during evolution.  Writing in the journal “Nature” the research team which included Professor Darla Zelenitsky (University of Calgary) suggest that accelerated growth led to the evolution of the giant forms of tyrannosaur (peramorphosis). In contrast, the Alioramini retained juvenile traits into adulthood (paedomorphosis).  This explains, their smaller size and gracile build.

It is postulated that the different body types of the Alioramini and Tyrannosaurini likely helped them live side by side in Asia by filling different ecological roles.

The Prince of Dragons

The fossils were discovered in the 1970s at the Baishin-Tsav locality (Bayanshiree Formation). The strata are believed to have been laid down in the Turonian to Santonian faunal stages of the Late Cretaceous. The fossils of Khankhuuluu mongoliensis are thought to be approximately 86 million years old. Khankhuuluu is estimated to have weighed around 750 kilograms and measured around four metres in length.

The dinosaur’s name translates as “Mongolia’s Prince of Dragons”.  It hints that this theropod was a prince that led to the evolution of the “tyrant kings”.

The Everything Dinosaur blog has documented numerous articles about new discoveries leading to the erection of new Tyrannosauroidea taxa.  Most of these dinosaurs were considerably smaller than Khankhuuluu.

To read about the discovery of a small-bodied tyrannosauroid from southern Laramidia: Suskityrannus – The Shape of Things to Come.

The contemporary Timurlengia from Uzbekistan: New Dinosaur Sheds Light on How Tyrannosaurs Got Big.

Moros intrepidus, a member of the Superfamily Tyrannosauroidea from Utah: Moros – A Diminutive Tyrannosauroid.

Alioramini Not a Basal Lineage

Previously, phylogenetic analysis had relied too much on immature specimens, and this led to the assumption that the Alioramini were a primitive, early diverging group. However, the researchers postulate that the Alioramini were not basal, but more derived representing theropods that retained immature features into adulthood.

Furthermore, the study reveals that Asian tyrannosauroids (similar to Khankhuuluu) dispersed to North America. They gave rise to the Eutyrannosauria. The Eutyrannosauria diversified and remained exclusively in North America until a single dispersal to Asia in the latest Cretaceous that established the Alioramini and Tyrannosaurini tribes.

The scientific paper: “A new Mongolian tyrannosauroid and the evolution of Eutyrannosauria” by Jared T. Voris, Darla K. Zelenitsky, Yoshitsugu Kobayashi, Sean P. Modesto, François Therrien, Hiroki Tsutsumi, Tsogtbaatar Chinzorig and Khishigjav Tsogtbaatar published in Nature.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Models and Toys.

Scientists have revealed the last meal of an Australian herbivorous dinosaur that lived ninety-five million years ago.  Researchers writing in the journal “Current Biology” report on the discovery of Diamantinasaurus matildae stomach contents.  This remarkable discovery is the first time that sauropod stomach contents have been identified.  The analysis of the plant remains suggests bulk feeding and multi-level browsing.  The Diamantinasaurus nicknamed “Judy” was not fussy when it came to food.  Plants eaten by Diamantinasaurus include conifers, seed ferns and angiosperms. In addition to the fossilised stomach contents, the scientists also examined mineralised skin found with the specimen. This revealed a pattern of polygonal (often hexagonal) non-overlapping scales, a characteristic commonly seen in other sauropods.

A life reconstruction of the Australian titanosaur Diamantinasaurus matildae. Picture credit: Travis Tischler.

Picture credit: Travis Tischler

Diamantinasaurus matildae Stomach Contents

Sauropods were abundant and diverse throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous.  The Sauropoda include the largest terrestrial animals known to science.  Studies of teeth suggest these dinosaurs were herbivorous.  However, our knowledge of their diet is based on indirect evidence such as coprolites (dung).  Furthermore, no fossilised gut contents (cololites) were known.  Intriguingly, this all changes with the publication of a remarkable study that describes Diamantinasaurus matildae stomach contents.

Subadult Diamantinasaurus matildae stomach contents. Undigested leaves can be clearly observed in the cololite. Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs.

Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs

The fossil material was collected from Winton Formation exposures (Queensland, Australia).  The cololite was located in the abdominal region and closely associated with a layer of mineralised skin.  Detailed analysis of the cololite reveals the plant material eaten.  Conifer pinnules, angiosperm leaves, and seed-fern fruiting bodies are preserved.  In addition, chemical biomarkers are identified consistent with angiosperms and gymnosperms.

This Diamantinasaurus matildae cololite provides the first direct, empirical evidence in sauropods of herbivory, demonstrating generalist feeding, low- to high-level browsing, and minimal oral processing of food.  It seems that these animals were not fussy what plant material they consumed.  They did not chew or grind up their food, relying on their enormous guts to digest the plant material.  Food may have persisted in their guts for a fortnight or more before being excreted.

Australian Age of Dinosaurs Collection Manager Mackenzie Enchelmaier (co-author of the study) highlighting the Diamantinasaurus gut contents. Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs.

Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs

The study marks the first use of molecular techniques to identify sauropod stomach contents.

Sauropods Feeding at a Range of Heights

The research was led by Dr Stephen Poropat (Curtin University, Perth, Western Australia).  The Diamantinasaurus specimen, originally found in 2017 has provided unprecedented detail on the feeding habits and diets of the Sauropoda.

The first direct, empirical evidence in sauropods of herbivory, demonstrating generalist feeding, low- to high-level browsing, and minimal oral processing of food. Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs.

Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs

To read Everything Dinosaur’s blog post from 2009 about the discovery of Diamantinasaurus: A Trio of New Dinosaurs from Australia.

Dr Poropat stated:

“The specific plants that they ate, and the height above ground at which they fed, have remained unknown – until now. The stomach contents we found belonged to a 12-metre-long, subadult sauropod that was still growing at the time of its death. Our findings show that at least some species of subadult sauropods were able to feed at a range of heights above ground level, and consequently were equipped to deal with environmental and vegetation changes throughout the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.”

Co-author of the study, John Curtin Distinguished Professor Kliti Grice added:

“By using advanced organic geochemical techniques, we were able to confirm the presence of both angiosperms and gymnosperms in the diet of this sauropod. This unique approach provided molecular evidence of the plants that sauropods consumed.”

Mineralised Skin

Furthermore, this amazing titanosaur fossil specimen revealed details of its skin texture. The researchers identified a pattern of five-sided (often hexagonal), non-overlapping scales. This type of integumentary covering has been found in other sauropod specimens. The scales measure between seven and thirteen mm in diameter.   Each scale is covered in small bumps (papillae).  Their appearance is consistent with other known sauropod skin fossils.

Mineralised skin found with the Diamantinasaurus specimen known as Judy reveals polygonal (often hexagonal) scales. Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs.

Picture credit: Australian Age of Dinosaurs

The Diamantinasaurus matildae stomach contents and mineralised skin were preserved alongside yet-to-be-published body fossils of the subadult.  The fossils are housed at the Australian Age of Dinosaurs Museum. These fossils will form a key part of the Australia Through Time exhibition in the Museum’s future multi-million-dollar facility.

The longevity of the clade Sauropoda was underpinned by the persistence through time of generalist feeders like Diamantinasaurus matildae that were capable of feeding at a range of heights on a wide variety of different plant species.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of a media release from the Australian Age of Dinosaurs in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Fossilized gut contents elucidate the feeding habits of sauropod dinosaurs” by Stephen F. Poropat, Anne-Marie P. Tosolini, Samantha L. Beeston, Mackenzie J. Enchelmaier, Adele H. Pentland, Philip D. Mannion, Paul Upchurch, Karen Chin, Vera A. Korasidis, Phil R. Bell, Nathan J. Enriquez, Alex I. Holman, Luke M. Brosnan, Amy L. Elson, Madison Tripp, Alan G. Scarlett, Belinda Gode, Robert H. C. Madden, William D. A. Rickard, Joseph J. Bevitt, Travis R. Tischler, Tayla L. M. Croxford, Trish Sloan, David A. Elliott and Kliti Grice published in Current Biology.

For models and replicas of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals: Dinosaur Models.

A newly published paper postulates that ungulate evolution has been shaped by two major ecological shifts. Tectonic shifts and global climate change have been the drivers of major biota turnover amongst large herbivorous mammals.

Ungulates are hoofed mammals.  This extremely diverse clade is subdivided into two orders, the Artiodactyla (even-toed) mammals that walk on two of their five toes and the Perissodactyla (odd-toed) mammals that walk on one or three toes. Molecular data led to a reclassification at the turn of the century with the establishment of a larger clade the Euungulata.

• Typical artiodactyls – ruminants such as cattle, goats, sheep, llamas, camels, hippos, giraffes, deer, pigs.
• Typical perissodactyls – rhinos, horses, tapirs.

It should be noted that the odd-toed ungulates were much more diverse in the past.  Brontotheres and knuckle-walking chalicotheres are extinct members of the Perissodactyla.

A wonderful prehistoric animal model. A 1:20 scale replica of the chalicothere Moropus – an extinct perissodactyl.

The picture above shows a typical chalicothere.  It is a 1:20 scale replica of Moropus from CollectA.  To view the range of CollectA scale prehistoric animal models: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Life.

Large Herbivores Shaping the Landscape

Large herbivores have shaped the Earth’s landscapes for the last forty million years.  A new study led by researchers from the University of Gothenburg in collaboration with scientists from Spain and the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin examines how these animals reacted to dramatic environmental changes.  The study, published in “Nature Communications” demonstrates that ecosystems managed to remain stable despite the extinction of many families.

Ungulates and other large mammals such as elephants are key ecosystem engineers.  The decline of large herbivores threatens entire habitats.  These large herbivores shape landscapes and promote biodiversity.  Current extinction rates, often referred to as the sixth mass extinction could lead to a loss of key taxa.

Dr Fernando Blanco, a visiting scientist at the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin led the research.  The fossils of over three thousand large herbivores from the past sixty million years to more recent times were studied.

Dr Blanco commented:

“We found that these ecosystems have remained surprisingly stable over long periods of time, even though species were added and others became extinct. Twice in the last sixty million years, however, the environmental pressure was so great that the entire system was globally reorganised.”

The End of the Tethys

The team discovered that the first major reorganisation of ecosystems took place around twenty-one million years ago.  This was during the Miocene Epoch.  The Tethys Sea closed and this created a landbridge between Eurasia and Africa.  A mass migration of species occurred. The ancestors of many extant ungulates moved into new habitats.  This had a profound effect on ungulate evolution.

A second major reorganisation of ecosystems occurred approximately ten million years ago.  This was during the Tortonian stage of the Miocene. Global cooling led to a massive reduction in forests and the spread of grasslands.  This led to a dramatic increase in grazing species and a gradual disappearance of many forest-dwelling species.  The researchers postulate that this was the beginning of a sustained decline in the functional diversity of large, herbivorous mammals.  This has led to a decrease in their influence over the planet’s ecosystems. Despite the extinctions, the researchers found that the basic ecological structure of herbivore communities remained remarkably stable.  Ecosystems remained stable even when many iconic taxa died out such as mastodons, mammoths and giant rhinoceroses.

A typical artiodactyl – a Cape buffalo (Syncerus caffer) photographed in Tanzania. Scientists reflect on ungulate evolution and the impact of large herbivores on the Earth’s ecosystems. Picture credit: Juan López Cantalapiedra.

Picture credit: Juan López Cantalapiedra

Co-author of the study, Dr Ignacio A. Lazagabaster from CENIEH (Centro National de Investigacion Sobre la Evolucion Humana, Spain) commented:

“It’s like a football team changing players during a game without the line-up changing significantly. New species came into play and the communities changed, but the new players fulfilled similar ecological tasks – as a result, the overall structure remained stable.”

The Resilience of Large Herbivores is Not Guaranteed

The research team remarks on the resilience of large mammals to survive glaciation, global cooling and other environmental crises.  However, many large taxa are extremely vulnerable today.

Fellow co-author of the study Dr Juan L. Cantalapiedra from the Spanish MNCN (Museo Nacional de Ciencias Naturales) stated:

“Our results show how enormously adaptable ecosystems can be. But there are limits. If we continue to lose species and their ecological roles on such a massive scale as in the present, we could soon reach a third global tipping point – and we humans are actively contributing to this.”

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of the Museum für Naturkunde Berlin in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Two major ecological shifts shaped 60 million years of ungulate faunal evolution” by Fernando Blanco, Ignacio A. Lazagabaster, Óscar Sanisidro, Faysal Bibi, Nicola S. Heckeberg, María Ríos, Bastien Mennecart, María Teresa Alberdi, Jose Luis Prado, Juha Saarinen, Daniele Silvestro, Johannes Müller, Joaquín Calatayud and Juan L. Cantalapiedra published in Nature Communications.

For models of extinct mammals and other prehistoric animals: Prehistoric Animal Models and Toys.