PNSO will add a Tylosaurus marine reptile model to their popular mid-size model range. Evan the Tylosaurus will be in stock at Everything Dinosaur before Christmas (2021). The Tylosaurus figure is number 57 in the PNSO mid-size model range.
PNSO Evan the Tylosaurus, Everything Dinosaur customers can expect this marine reptile figure to be in stock before Christmas (2021).
Whilst other manufacturers have struggled to produce prehistoric animal figures this year, PNSO have gone from strength-to-strength introducing more than fifteen prehistoric animals in their mid-size range in 2021, including a Kronosaurus model (Jeff the Kronosaurus). A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur confirmed that both these marine reptile figures (Jeff the Kronosaurus and Evan the Tylosaurus), will be in stock at Everything Dinosaur very soon.
The PNSO Evan the Tylosaurus marine reptile model (dorsal view).
Tylosaurus Marine Reptile Model
Several species have been assigned to the Tylosaurus genus. The first species to formally named and described was Tylosaurus proriger, which was named by the famous American palaeontologist Edward Drinker Cope in 1869. The most recent addition to the Tylosaurus genus is T. saskatchewanensis which was described in 2018 (Jiménez-Huidobro et al). The fossils come from the Bearpaw Formation of southern Sasktachewan (Canada) and demonstrate that tylosaurs were present in the northern Western Interior Seaway during the late Campanian. Tylosaurus saskatchewanensis represents the most northerly occurrence of this genus.
Although the PNSO models do not have a declared scale, at around 31 cm in length, this is a very good size for a marine reptile figure.
Tylosaurus is a member of the Mosasauridae family. Mosasaurus is the type genus of the Mosasauridae, an extinct family of marine reptiles related to modern lizards and snakes. Several species have been named and Mosasaurus hoffmannii (which was named in 1829), with an estimated length in excess of 17 metres is one of the largest marine reptiles known from the Cretaceous. Tylosaurus proriger was slightly smaller with an estimated length of around 13-14 metres. Some palaeontologists have estimated that Tylosaurus could have weighed more than two tonnes.
PNSO Evan the Tylosaurus measures 31 cm in length.
Flippers and Tail
The PNSO Tylosaurus model has been given an asymmetrical tail fluke, which reflects soft tissue evidence from fossil remains. The model has a deep chest which is typical of the Mosasauridae and short but powerful flippers.
The stunning PNSO Tylosaurus marine reptile model (dorsal view). The model has been given a deep chest which is very typical of the Mosasauridae. The figure has a powerful tail fluke and broad flippers.
Pterygoid Teeth
The model has been provided with two rows of teeth in its upper jaws. The second set located towards the back of the mouth are called pterygoid teeth. The pterygoid teeth helped the animal to grip its prey and to aid in the movement of prey down the gullet.
The packaging for the PNSO Tylosaurus model.
Transparent Support Stands
PNSO Evan the Tylosaurus is supplied with two transparent support stands. These stands permit collectors to display their figure, the substantial lower tail fluke would cause the figure to topple over if it were simply placed on a table.
The PNSO Tylosaurus is supplied with two transparent display stands.
The spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur explained that Evan the Tylosaurus was just the latest prehistoric animal model to be announced by PNSO and they expected more exciting figures to be released before the end of the year.
To view the range of PNSO prehistoric animal models and figures available from Everything Dinosaur: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs.
Our thanks to William who sent into Everything Dinosaur a detailed review of the PNSO “Yinqi” the Yutyrannus dinosaur model. William has been busy writing reviews on his recent PNSO prehistoric animal acquisitions. He is becoming an avid fan of the PNSO mid-size model range.
The Yutyrannus (Y. huali), is just one of several theropod models that have been introduced by PNSO this year.
PNSO Yinqi the Yutyrannus (lateral view).
Dinosaur Model Review
Here is William’s review of his latest PNSO acquisition:
PNSO 2021 Yutyrannus huali “Yinqi”. 1/30-1/35 scale model. Length: 10 inches. Height: 4.1 inches. Box: Standard white PNSO issue with the acrylic stand and a beautiful booklet.
The PNSO Yinqi the Yutyrannus is supplied with a small transparent stand that when placed in the middle of the replica’s chest helps to support this dinosaur figure.
Looking at the Head and the Articulated Jaws
William starts his review by looking at the head and the jaws of the Yutyrannus figure. He comments on the bare snout and highlights the fine detail of the scales and the well-defined nostrils, before declaring the orange nasal crest as “a stunner”. The lacrimal horns are praised and he states:
“What a fantastic, feathered head sculpt, you will not find anywhere else, kudos to PNSO we have a Yutyrannus finally.”
William also commented on the eye colouration and the black skin folds encircling the orbits. Turning his attention to the jaw, he stated that the jaw of the dinosaur model is fully articulated and opens quite wide to show off wonderful white teeth which are displayed in a lipless mouth. The painting of the interior of the mouth was extolled and he exclaimed:
“The tongue sits flat to the bottom of the mouth and looks great with detailed nasal passages in the roof of the skull.”
PNSO Yinqi the Yutyrannus with an articulated jaw.
Reviewing the Limbs of “Yinqi” the Yutyrannus
When compared to the reduced forelimbs of T. rex or Tarbosaurus, the arms of the tyrannosauroid Yutyrannus look powerful, each hand is armed with three robust claws and William suggests that these claws were used to hold onto or despatch prey. Even though the arms are feathered, the sculpting team at PNSO have taken care to give the impression of powerful muscles under the plumage, a point that William remarks upon. He also comments on the strong, muscular legs of the model with their large dewclaws and the padded soles of the feet.
The rough, shaggy integumentary covering providing excellent insulation for this large dinosaur in its harsh, temperate climate.
To read Everything Dinosaur’s 2012 blog post about the discovery and scientific description of Yutyrannus: One Tonne Basal Tyrannosauroid.
A Hunter Sniffing Out Prey
The review looks at the torso of the figure and the feather impressions covering the body are discussed.
William praises the pose of the figure remarking:
“The pose is that of a hunter sniffing out prey in a forward motion with the head posed to spot movement. Truly this figure is a wonder to behold.”
The PNSO Yinqi the Yutyrannus (anterior view).Reviewer William praises the figure stating that it is a “wonder to behold”.
Painting a Prehistoric Animal
The choice of colour scheme is lauded in William’s review. He states that the tips of the jaws are black, but this colour gradually softens and lightens towards the posterior end of the jawbones. He praises the contrasting white of the jowls and the chest area of the model. The main body colour is described as “a rich golden wheat of varied shades from dark to light”.
William also highlights the dark wash that runs over the back along the spine to the end of the tail, which is painted a dun colour.
As with previous reviews, William concludes by providing some further information on the dinosaur.
Discovery and History
Temporal Period: Early Cretaceous of the Liaoning Province: 125 million years ago. Yutyrannus huali “Beautiful Feathered Tyrant”. The adult was 29.5 ft with a weight of 1.1 tonnes around the weight of Megalosaurus.
First described and named in 2012 by Xu Xing from a trio of nearly complete fossil remains representing an adult with a subadult and a juvenile tagging along on maybe its first hunt. All three have been captured for all time.
A great pity those that had discovered the specimens cut them into square sections for ease of transport to a dealer from the Batu Yingzi quarry. Imagine what more could have been learned from where they were unearthed.
The palaeoenvironment that Yutyrannus inhabited would have been similar to the temperate forests of the Pacific Northwest of the USA/Canada – warm and wet in summer and harsh in the winter but Yutyrannus was well-insulated thanks to its thick, saggy coat.
In concluding his review William stated:
“PNSO 2021 Yutyrannus huali “Yinqi” another great addition to their ever-expanding theropod line but a unique edition to own a fully feathered natural looking Tyrannosauroidea and presently the world largest feathered dinosaur”.
To view the range of PNSO models and figures in stock at Everything Dinosaur: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs.
Everything Dinosaur, the UK-based supplier of dinosaur models, toys and games has received 160 Google reviews from customers. All of these reviews are 5-stars, the top marks that can be awarded. Team members are honoured to have received such praise from customers.
Everything Dinosaur has received over 160 reviews from customers. All the reviews received are 5-stars – the highest marks available.
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:
“We are truly humbled to have received 161 Google 5-star reviews in a row. Customer feedback and testimonials are very important to us and we really do appreciate all the comments that we receive.”
Genuine Customer Feedback
Each of the Google reviews has been provided by a genuine customer of Everything Dinosaur. These are reviews from real people who are commenting on their experience of purchasing from the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.
Here are some typical, recent customer reviews received by the company:
Jay provided a review stating:
“Stellar customer service! Everything Dinosaur go above and beyond to ensure customer satisfaction. I am yet to come across another company who does so much for their customers”.
Maddalena commented:
“Great quality, fantastic value for money, super fast delivery. We are loyal customers.”
Regular customer Paul wrote in his 5-star Google review:
“Really great on-line shop for dinosaur paraphernalia, fantastic range from simple toys to high-end, well-detailed models, fast delivery, great customer service, highly recommended.”
Oliver added:
“Always amazing service, genuinely the best I have ever experienced from an on-line transaction – courteous, quick response etc. And great models too…”
Google Reviews
These Google reviews are not received in isolation, product reviews and customer comments are being posted up on Everything Dinosaur’s website all the time. There are over 1,700 reviews on the Everything Dinosaur website and in addition, the company’s products and customer service record is independently vetted by Feefo. There are over 640 Feefo reviews currently displayed, Everything Dinosaur is well on its way to retaining the prestigious Feefo Platinum Trusted Service Award – the highest award for customer service provided by Feefo.
The Feefo Platinum Trusted Service Award.
The spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur added:
“We are grateful for all the feedback we receive and we are continually trying our best under very difficult circumstances to support our customers. For example, manufacturing and logistic difficulties have been widely reported but this week we were able to receive a shipment of Wild Safari Prehistoric World models at our warehouse. Twenty-two prehistoric animal model lines were either put back into stock or had more stock added to their inventory. This provides our customers with a reliable source of prehistoric animal themed merchandise.”
Some of the Wild Safari Prehistoric World figures received into stock recently at Everything Dinosaur (September 2021). Can you name them all?
To view the Wild Safari Prehistoric World range of figures in stock at Everything Dinosaur: Wild Safari Prehistoric World.
With around 100 days until Christmas, customers can be assured that Everything Dinosaur will be doing all they can to ensure continuation of supplies and stock of dinosaur toys and dinosaur models, although it is advisable to shop early. Purchases of Everything Dinosaur products are all backed by the company’s 5-star, award-winning service.
Our thanks to dinosaur fan and model collector William who sent in his detailed review of the PNSO “Connor” the Torvosaurus dinosaur model after his recent purchase from Everything Dinosaur.
The Torvosaurus product packaging, there is English writing on the reserve side. Dinosaur model fan William sent a detailed review of his model to Everything Dinosaur.
Reviewing a Torvosaurus Dinosaur Model
Here is William’s review of the PNSO Torvosaurus:
PNSO 2021 Torvosaurus tanneri “Connor”. 1/35-1/38 scale model. Length: 11.5 inches. Height: 3.1 inches. Box: Standard white PNSO issue with the plastic stand and beautiful booklet.
Looking at the Head and Jaws
William states that the head of the model is based upon Professor Scott Hartman’s reconstruction which gives the head a longer snout – a wonderful Megalosauridae head. PNSO have given “Connor” a pair of lacrimal crests these are only seen in an as yet undescribed German specimen, but they are an attractive feature of this model.
The figure has a fully articulated jaw with fantastic white teeth as is the norm no lips and the teeth indicate that this dinosaur had an overbite. Great to see a dewlap under the jaw – the head looks very natural. The pink tongue and very detailed nasal passage finish off the business end of this Megalosauridae head.
A close view of the detailed and beautifully crafted head of Connor the Torvosaurus dinosaur model from PNSO.
William went on to comment that the nasal ridges run from the top of the snout to the lacrimal crests and below a pair of pale-yellow eyes with eyelids and skin folds around the eye sockets. William also praised the detail associated with the ear opening. He noted no shrink wrapping on the model.
Commenting on the Limbs
As a dinosaur model fan and collector, William was able to comment that the Torvosaurus possessed a pair of powerful forelimbs, a stark contrast to tyrannosaurs. He remarked that the forelimbs on the model ended in three-fingered hands with a strong, robust grappling-hook-like thumb claw. William speculated that this large claw could have been used for holding or despatching prey.
The hind legs are commented upon, they are described as robust and anchored to an equally robust pelvis. The powerful, muscular legs would have been ideally suited for chasing herbivorous dinosaurs. William pointed out that the feet had padded soles and large dewclaws with blunted toe claws – a detail praised as in life toe claws would not have been razor-sharp, but somewhat blunted.
The powerful limbs of the PNSO Torvosaurus dinosaur model.
Admiring the Torvosaurus Trunk
When discussing the body of the Torvosaurus model William declared:
“The classical long Megalosauridae body, oh we have wait for this for a lifetime…”
The scales, textures and other details such as the skin folds are praised and described as very lifelike. The osteoderms which run from the back of the skull down to the tail are also highlighted in William’s review.
When describing the row of osteoderms that run down the model’s back, William said:
“The spinal osteoderms are not to small nor too big, just correct running from the base of skull to the tip of the tail growing slightly smaller.”
When concluding his review of the body of the Torvosaurus William exclaimed that such an eye for detail in skin and scales was rarely matched by other manufacturers.
Paint Application and Colour Scheme
William ended his review of the PNSO Torvosaurus figure by commenting on the colour scheme. He explained that the design team at PNSO had chosen a good, well-defined grey paint scheme which was broken up by broad, mottled stripes, with a delicate pinkish underside that was “very pleasing to the eye.”
The russet orange depicted on the antorbital fenestra of the model suggested to William that this was a replica of a male Torvosaurus in his prime ready to battle for territory and hunting grounds.
The new for 2021 PNSO Connor the Torvosaurus dinosaur model, a stunning replica of a Late Cretaceous apex predator.
Discovery and History
Keen to demonstrate his knowledge of dinosaurs, William provided a brief summary of the Torvosaurus genus:
Torvosaurus tanneri “Tanner’s Savage Lizard”.
Temporal Period: Middle to Late Jurassic “Morrison Formation” 165–148 million years ago.
The year was 1979 Peter Malcolm Galton and James Alvin Jensen named and described the new type species Torvosaurus tanneri.
A second species was named and described in 2014 (Torvosaurus gurneyi), based on fossil material discovered in Portugal (Lourinhã Formation). The trivial name for this species honoured James Gurney, a world-renowned artist and creator of the “Dinotopia” book series.
“2021 has been a very busy year for the entire team of Everything Dinosaur from the lockdowns to the move to the new premises but not for one moment have they faltered their service and stocks only grow and we you friends and loyal customers salute you all and look forward to marvels and surprises of 2022.”
To view the range of PNSO prehistoric animal models available from Everything Dinosaur: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs.
The user-friendly Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys.
New research published in the journal “Nature Communications” suggests that all extant snakes evolved from just a handful of species that survived the K-Pg extinction event 66 million years ago. The researchers conclude that this catastrophic extinction event, that wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs and something like 75% of all terrestrial life, was a form of “creative destruction” leading to a burst of evolutionary development within the Serpentes.
Snakes benefitted from the End-Cretaceous extinction event. It enabled them to evolve rapidly and to exploit new, ecological niches. Picture credit: Joschua Knüppe.
Snakes benefited from the extinction event, the loss of so many competitors allowed them to diversify rapidly and to occupy new niches in food chains.
The Snake Fossil Record
The fossil record of snakes is relatively poor because snake skeletons are typically small and fragile making the preservation of fossil material a rare event.
It is generally accepted that snakes (Suborder Serpentes), evolved from lizards. Snakes gradually losing their limbs, whether the first snakes were burrowers and evolved from burrowing lizards or whether the first snakes were adapted to a life in marine environments is an area of on-going debate between vertebrate palaeontologists. For example, in 2016 a team of scientists challenged the conclusions from the paper that described Tetrapodophis amplectus, a primitive snake-like animal from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil. It had been suggested that T. amplectus, which had been described and named the year before, was adapted to a life underground, however, researchers from Canada and Australia challenged this view and proposed a marine habit for this 20 cm long animal that has been classified as being close to the base of the evolutionary lineage of true snakes.
The tiny limbs of Tetrapodophis may have been used to hold prey. Scientists are uncertain whether this animal was a burrower or adapted to a marine environment. Picture credit: Julius Csotonyi.
The research, led by scientists at the University of Bath in collaboration with researchers from Cambridge, Bristol and Germany, involved examining snake fossils and an analysis of the genomes of living snakes to pinpoint genetic differences permitting a picture of modern snake evolution to be built up.
The results indicate that despite the great variety of snakes alive today – cobras, vipers, pythons, boas, sea snakes and blind, burrowing snakes for example, all extant snakes can be traced back to a handful of species that survived the K-Pg extinction event that took place 66 million years ago.
Snake Survival Strategy
The authors postulate that the ability of snakes to shelter underground and go for long periods without food helped them survive the destructive effects of the bolide impact event. In the aftermath, the extinction of their competitors including Cretaceous snakes and small theropod dinosaurs, permitted snakes to move into new niches, new habitats and new parts of the world. Today, snakes are found in all but the highest latitudes and are present on every continent except Antarctica.
The researchers, which included lead author Dr Catherine Klein, a former graduate of Bath University but now based at the Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg (FAU) in Germany, state that modern snake diversity – including tree snakes, sea snakes, venomous vipers and cobras, and huge constrictors like boas and pythons – emerged only after the non-avian dinosaur extinction.
Dr Klein commented:
“It’s remarkable, because not only are they surviving an extinction that wipes out so many other animals, but within a few million years they are innovating, using their habitats in new ways.”
A Change in Snake Vertebrae
Fossils also show a change in the shape of snake vertebrae in the aftermath, resulting from the extinction of Cretaceous lineages and the appearance of new groups, including giant sea snakes, such as Gigantophis garstini from the Eocene of northern Africa which may have reached a length of ten metres. Gigantophis was scientifically described in 1901, it was thought to have been the largest snake to have ever lived, until in 2009 when the giant, South American boa – Titanoboa cerrejonensis was described.
The Rebor Titanoboa Museum Class Maquette Monty Resurgent. A model of the largest snake known to science.
The picture (above) shows the Rebor Titanoboa Museum Class Maquette known as Monty Resurgent.
The research team also suggest that snakes began to spread rapidly around the globe. The “Greenhouse Earth” conditions that occurred close to the boundary between the Palaeocene and Eocene Epochs that led to the establishment of extensive tropical forests in the Northern Hemisphere, would have facilitated the geographical spread of cold-blooded animals such as snakes.
Although the ancestor of living snakes probably lived somewhere in the Southern Hemisphere, snakes first appear to have spread to Asia after the extinction event.
Corresponding author, Dr Nick Longrich, from the Milner Centre for Evolution (University of Bath), explained:
“Our research suggests that extinction acted as a form of “creative destruction”- by wiping out old species, it allowed survivors to exploit the gaps in the ecosystem, experimenting with new lifestyles and habitats. This seems to be a general feature of evolution – it’s the periods immediately after major extinctions where we see evolution at its most wildly experimental and innovative. The destruction of biodiversity makes room for new things to emerge and colonise new landmasses. Ultimately life becomes even more diverse than before.”
Further Serpentes Evolution Driven by Climate Change
The researchers also found evidence for a second major diversification event around the time that the world shifted from a warm and moist climate to a colder, more seasonal climate (Oligocene Epoch).
It seems, that for the snakes at least, global catastrophes can have their upsides. The patterns seen in snake evolution hint at the key role played by mass extinction events – they are the catalysts for driving rapid evolutionary changes.
The scientific paper: “Evolution and dispersal of snakes across the Cretaceous-Paleogene mass extinction” by Catherine G. Klein, Davide Pisani, Daniel J. Field, Rebecca Lakin, Matthew A. Wills and Nicholas R. Longrich published in Nature Communications.
One of the benefits of working in the packing rooms at Everything Dinosaur sorting orders for customers and preparing parcels so that they can be sent out is that you get the opportunity to admire product packaging. Take for example, the clean lines of the Nanmu Studio Jurassic Series models, the artwork on the front of the boxes is most impressive. It also permits the size of the packaging and the size of the models contained therein to be compared.
Four of the Nanmu Studio Jurassic Series theropods in stock at Everything Dinosaur. Spinosaurus Supplanter limited edition model (top), Giganotosaurus Behemoth tiger stripe (second top), Tyrannosaurus rex Alpha Green (bottom). Ceratosaurus Scavenger (right). Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
The award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Dinosaur Toys.
Comparing Product Packaging
The picture (above) shows four different Nanmu Studio theropod models. The limited edition Spinosaurus (Supplanter) is at the top, the Giganotosaurus Behemoth in the tiger stripe version is in the middle and the Nanmu Studio Jurassic Series Tyrannosaurus rex (Alpha Green) is closest to the camera. Model collectors do not often get the chance to see product packaging displayed in this way. The product on the right of the photograph is the Nanmu Studio Ceratosaurus (Scavenger), it is dwarfed by the other three boxes, but the Ceratosaurus packaging is over 33 cm long and the model inside measures over 30 cm in length and represents a 1/35th scale replica.
The Nanmu Studio Ceratosaurus (Scavenger) dinosaur model. The product packaging might be dwarfed by other Nanmu Studio theropod boxes, but the Ceratosaurus model is more than 30 cm in length and represents a dinosaur in 1:35 scale.
A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:
“Dinosaur fans and model collectors see lots of images of the actual products, but they do not see many pictures of the product packaging. Some of the designs and illustrations on the front of the box are a work of art in themselves. The detailed dinosaur illustrations on the Nanmu Studio Jurassic Series boxes are a lovely example of product packaging art.”
Everything Dinosaur is a legal importer of Nanmu Studio models for the UK. The company has also registered all the Nanmu Studio models that it stocks under the EU 2019/1020 market surveillance regulations so it can legally sell these figures in the European Economic Area.
Ask someone to draw an ammonite and it is very likely that they will sketch a coiled shell. Such fossils are ubiquitous and a mainstay of most people’s fossil collections. However, not all ammonites had a coiled shell, some of the members of the Order Ammonitida (more derived ammonites), especially some families that evolved during the Late Cretaceous, had very bizarre shell shapes, far removed from the tightly coiled planispiral shape that most people associate with these highly successful cephalopods.
A selection of ammonite fossils to be used in an exercise exploring the role of index fossils with science students. These ammonites (Dactylioceras), possess tightly coiled, planispiral shells. However, not all ammonites had shells like these, some genera evolved bizarre shells and these are referred to as heteromorphic ammonites.Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Preparing for Pravitoceras
As team members at Everything Dinosaur prepare for the arrival of the last of the new for 2021 CollectA Age of Dinosaur models they have been busy checking over their fact sheet for Pravitoceras. The CollectA Pravitoceras is a replica of one of those ammonite genera with a very peculiar shell.
The colourful heteromorph ammonoid model – CollectA Pravitoceras.
The attractive Pravitoceras model increases the number of invertebrates featured in the CollectA range following the recent introduction (2020) of a horseshoe crab, a trilobite, Orthoceras, a belemnite, the nautilus (N. pompilius) and an ammonite with a regularly coiled shell (homomorph) – Pleuroceras.
Members of the public might be quite familiar with those types of ammonites with tightly coiled shells, as epitomised by the CollectA Pleuroceras (an example of a homomorph shell). In the Late Jurassic a number of new types of marine cephalopod began to appear in the fossil record with different shell morphotypes – the ammonite shell began to diverge from the standard planispiral shape. These ammonites became increasingly abundant and diverse during the Cretaceous and by the Late Cretaceous they were geographically widespread.
The heteromorphic ammonites were so abundant, that just like their coiled relatives, many genera have become important zonal fossils assisting with the relative dating of strata (biostratigraphy).
A scale drawing of the bizarre heteromorphic ammonite from the Late Cretaceous of Japan (Pravitoceras). This scale drawing will be used in the Everything Dinosaur Pravitoceras fact sheet.Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Pravitoceras – An “S-shaped” Ammonite
The final shell coil of Pravitoceras helps to form a distinctive “S” shape and the body chamber is folded back on itself to form a retroversal hook. Palaeontologists have speculated that these types of ammonites were either entirely epifaunal (dwelling on the sea floor), perhaps scavenging or hunting slow moving animals such as bivalves or snails, or they floated passively in the water column, like many types of extant jellyfish, feeding on zooplankton.
Research using wax replicas and computer models has demonstrated that no matter how complex the shell shape, these creatures would have had no trouble maintaining their buoyancy in the water column. Palaeontologists debate what role in the food web ammonites like Pravitoceras occupied. Many scientists have postulated that Pravitoceras floated passively in the water column feeding on zooplankton.
In 1984, a field team led by the renowned Argentinian palaeontologist José Bonaparte uncovered the fossilised remains of a theropod dinosaur in Chubut Province (Patagonia). The articulated fossil remains included most of the front-portion of the skeleton and although some of the bones had been deformed and distorted due to taphonomic processes, skin impressions of parts of the right side of the animal had been preserved. Skin impressions associated with the head of this dinosaur were also present, but these were not recognised during laboratory preparation and sadly they were lost as the skull fossils were cleaned and prepared.
A year later, Carnotaurus (C. sastrei) was formally named and described. Remarkably, despite the Carnotaurus skin impressions being the most completely preserved of any theropod, no detailed study of the skin had been undertaken.
All that changed this week with the publication of a scientific paper in the journal “Cretaceous Research”.
Researchers have described in detail the scaly skin of the abelisaurid Carnotaurus sastrei. The image shows a life reconstruction of Carnotaurus. Picture credit: Jake Baardse.
Not a Feather to be Found
Palaeontologist Dr Christophe Hendrickx from the Unidad Ejecutora Lillo in San Miguel de Tucumán (Argentina), worked with Dr Phil Bell from the University of New England (New South Wales, Australia), an expert in dinosaur integumentary coverings. Whilst the skin impressions only cover part of the body, (the largest skin impression is associated from the base of the tail), the scientists were able to determine that the skin covering consisted of a diverse range of scales and bumps of different shapes and sizes.
No evidence for any bristle-like structures or feathers could be found.
The skin is preserved in the shoulder, flank, tail and, possibly, neck regions and consists of medium to large (20–65 mm in diameter) conical feature scales surrounded by a network of low and small (<14 mm) non-imbricating basement scales separated by narrow interstitial tissue. Picture credit: Christophe Hendrickx.
Dr Hendrickx remarked:
“By looking at the skin from the shoulders, belly and tail regions, we discovered that the skin of this dinosaur was more diverse than previously thought, consisting of large and randomly distributed conical studs surrounded by a network of small elongated, diamond-shaped or sub-circular scales.”
Have Carnotaurus Model Makers Got it All Wrong?
Contrary to previous interpretations and the attempts of model makers to depict Carnotaurus, the feature scales are randomly distributed and neither form discrete rows nor show progressive variations in their size along parts of the body. All those illustrations and replicas of Carnotaurus with a neat row of spines running down its back are not accurate according to the conclusions drawn from this research.
The Nanmu Studio Carnotaurus (Ranger), the distinct rows of prominent scales may not reflect the actual integument of this abelisaurid, but their random size fits the assessment of the skin composition as proposed by the researchers.Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur
The picture above shows a Carnotaurus replica in the Nanmu Studio Jurassic Series range.
The composition of the skin and the morphology of the scales reminded the researchers of the integument of the Australian lizard the Thorny Devil (Moloch horridus). This small, spiny lizard which is relatively common in the deserts of western and central Australia, uses its spines primarily for defence. It would be difficult for any would-be predator to swallow it. Grooves between the spines allow the lizard to channel water to its mouth, a useful adaptation when living in an environment with infrequent rain.
A close-up view of the scales from the base of the tail. The variety of bumps and scales are reminiscent of those found in the extant lizard the Thorny Devil (Moloch horridus). It has been suggested that the skin texture of Carnotaurus played a role in thermoregulation. Picture credit: Christophe Hendrickx.
At around 8 metres in length and since Carnotaurus is regarded as the apex predator in its environment, it is unlikely that the lumps and bumps on the skin were primarily for self-defence, but protection from intraspecific combat cannot be ruled out. However, recent studies have shown that Carnotaurus was a strong runner. If this large dinosaur had a very active lifestyle, then helping to regulate body temperature and permit heat-loss would have been very important.
Playing a Role in Thermoregulation
The researchers speculate that the skin may have played a vital role in thermoregulation, a role consistent with integument function in living mammals and reptiles.
No evidence for feathers on the skin of Carnotaurus was found in this study. Scientists conclude that the lumps, bumps and large scales on the skin could have played a role in thermoregulation. Picture credit: Christophe Hendrickx
The scientific paper: “The scaly skin of the abelisaurid Carnotaurus sastrei (Theropoda: Ceratosauria) from the Upper Cretaceous of Patagonia” by Christophe Hendrickx and Phil R. Bell published in Cretaceous Research.
A new species of carcharodontosaurid has been named from a single fragment of upper jawbone found in Uzbekistan. The dinosaur has been named Ulughbegsaurus uzbekistanensis and it was probably the apex predator in the ecosystem suggesting that carcharodontosaurids remained the dominant predators relative to tyrannosauroids, at least in Asia until around 90 million years ago.
Left maxilla of Ulughbegsaurus (fossil specimen UzSGM 11-01-02) in (a) lateral, (b) medial, (c) ventral, (d) anterior and (e) posterior views. Reconstruction of skull in lateral view (e) – grey missing bones are based on Neovenator, modified from Naish et al. Picture credit: Tanaka et al.
The First Late Cretaceous Carcharodontosaurian from Central Asia
Ulughbegsaurus has been named based on partial maxilla found in strata associated with the Bissekty Formation of the Kyzylkum Desert (Uzbekistan). Several other predatory theropods have been described from fossils found in this formation, but all of them are considerably smaller. The tyrannosauroid Timurlengia euotica was coeval, but much smaller than Ulughbegsaurus providing further support for the idea that carcharodontosaurians were the dominant, apex predators in Laurasia until their extinction some 20 million years prior to the end of the Cretaceous, from which point onwards it was the tyrannosauroids that took over this niche in most Laurasian ecosystems.
A life reconstruction of Ulughbegsaurus uzbekistanensis (top) compared in size with the coeval tyrannosauroid Timurlengia euotica which was named and described in 2016. Picture credit: Julius Csotonyi.
Estimating Size from a Single Fragment of Bone
Palaeontologists can use the size of the tooth row in the maxilla to help them estimate the body size of theropod dinosaurs. Studies of carcharodontosaurids and tyrannosaurids have demonstrated that the length of the tooth row in the maxilla is isometrically correlated with femur length, which is very helpful, as the length of the thigh bone is widely used to help calculate body mass. Based on this data, the authors of this paper, calculate that the Ulughbegsaurus specimen was at least 7 metres long and over a tonne in weight.
The researchers, which included corresponding author Kohei Tanaka (University of Tsukuba, Japan) and Darla Zelenitsky (University of Calgary, Canada), conclude that the individual represented by the single bone was probably 7.5 to 8 metres in length.
Ulughbegsaurus uzbekistanensis was much bigger than any other theropod known from this region. The tyrannosauroid Timurlengia was approximately 3-4 metres long and around 8 times lighter. This suggests that Timurlengia was a secondary predator along with an as yet, unnamed large dromaeosaurid, whilst Ulughbegsaurus occupied the niche of apex predator. The discovery of Ulughbegsaurus records the geologically latest stratigraphic co-occurrence of carcharodontosaurid and tyrannosauroid dinosaurs from Laurasia and evidence indicates carcharodontosaurians remained the dominant predators relative to tyrannosauroids, at least in Asia, as late as the Turonian faunal stage of the Cretaceous.
Tyrannosauroids Kept in Check by Carcharodontosaurians
For much of the Cretaceous allosauroids (part of the Carnosauria clade), including carcharodontosaurians were the largest terrestrial predators on Earth. It was only after their extinction that tyrannosauroids (members of another theropod clade, the Coelurosauria), became much larger and occupied the role of apex predators in most ecosystems across Laurasia.
Evidence of larger tyrannosauroids is not known until the Campanian of North America, some 7 million years after Ulughbegsaurus and Timurlengia lived. Palaeontologists remain uncertain as to the dynamics of apex predator evolution amongst the Theropoda as the fossil record from 90 to 83 million years ago (Coniacian-Santonian) is extremely poor.
Comparisons between small tyrannosauroid and large non-tyrannosauroid predatory theropods. Phylogenetic tree (a) comparing Tyrannosauroidea with sympatric allosauroid taxa. Guanlong with sympatric Sinraptor from the Late Jurassic Shishugou Formation of China (1); Tanycolagreus and Stokesosaurus with sympatric Allosaurus and Saurophaganax from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation of the United States (2); Eotyrannus and sympatric Neovenator from the Early Cretaceous Wessex Formation of the United Kingdom (3); Moros and sympatric Siats from the early Late Cretaceous Cedar Mountain Formation of the United States (4) and (5) Timurlengia and sympatric Ulughbegsaurus from the Turonian Bissekty Formation of Uzbekistan indicating that sympatric large allosauroid taxa are found at least until the Turonian faunal stage of the Cretaceous. Bivariate plot of body mass between tyrannosauroids and non-tyrannosauroid predatory theropods that stratigraphically co-occur (b). The analysis indicates that tyrannosauroids were small when other large predatory theropods were present. The grey shadow is where tyrannosauroids are larger than non-tyrannosauroid theropods and demonstrates the tyrannosauroid apex predatory dominance during the Late Cretaceous. Picture credit: Tanaka et al.
Honouring a Sultan of the Timurid Empire
Ulughbegsaurus uzbekistanensis (pronounced Ul-lug-bey-sore-us uz-bek-ee-stan-en-sis), was named in honour of Ulugh Beg, a sultan and polymath of the Timurid Empire in the fifteenth-century. The species or trivial name honours the country of Uzbekistan.
A Significant Fossil Discovery
Although Ulughbegsaurus has been described from a single bone, its discovery is very significant. U. uzbekistanensis represents the first definitive fossil evidence of carcharodontosaurians from Central Asia. It fills a geographic gap in the clade between Europe and East Asia and shows that carcharodontosaurians were widespread across Asia.
The scientific paper: “A new carcharodontosaurian theropod dinosaur occupies apex predator niche in the early Late Cretaceous of Uzbekistan” by Kohei Tanaka, Otabek Ulugbek Ogli Anvarov, Darla K. Zelenitsky, Akhmadjon Shayakubovich Ahmedshaev and Yoshitsugu Kobayashi published in Royal Society Open Science.
Researchers from the Royal Ontario Museum (Canada), have announced the discovery of a new species of armoured arthropod from the Burgess Shale of British Columbia. A study looking at 12 fossil specimens collected from Marble Canyon and Tokumm Creek in the Kootenay National Park (British Columbia), has been published this week by Royal Society Open Science. The arthropod has been named Titanokorys gainesi and at around 50 cm in length, it is a giant by Cambrian biota standards.
A life reconstruction of Titanokorys gainesi. Picture credit: Royal Ontario Museum.
The authors of the scientific paper, Dr Jean-Barnard Caron of the Royal Ontario Museum, an expert on Burgess Shale fauna and PhD student Joe Moysiuk, classify Titanokorys as a member of the Radiodonta, a stem group of the Arthropoda. Radiodonts were extremely diverse and geographically widespread during the Late Cambrian and many of them were giants when compared to other animals alive during this time in Earth’s history. Perhaps the most famous radiodont is the taxon Anomalocaris, regarded by many palaeontologists as the world’s first super-predator.
The CollectA Anomalocaris model. A fantastic replica of an early apex predator. The CollectA Anomalocaris (Other Prehistoric Animal Models).
The picture (above) shows a model of an Anomalocaris. This figure is part of the CollectA Prehistoric Life model range.
Radiodonts are characterised by their compound eyes, disc-shaped mouthparts and paired frontal appendages, which in the case of Titanokorys consist of comb-like structures which may have been used to sift through mud in search of prey. The broad, flattened carapace of Titanokorys supports the idea that it was benthic – living on the seabed.
Life reconstruction of Titanokorys gainesi (a) dorsal view, (b) ventral view, (c) lateral view and (d) anterior view. Picture credit: Lars Fields/Royal Ontario Museum.
Dr Caron stated:
“The sheer size of this animal is absolutely mind-boggling, this is one of the biggest animals from the Cambrian period ever found.”
Coeval with Cambroraster falcatus
The bedding planes that provided the Titanokorys fossil material have also revealed an abundance of the smaller, but closely related Cambroraster falcatus, which was named and described by Caron and Moysiuk in 2019. Cambroraster was named after the Millennium Falcon from Star Wars franchise, as its carapace resembled the shape of this iconic spaceship. The co-occurrence of these two species on the same bedding planes highlights potential competition for benthic resources and the high diversity of large predators sustained by Cambrian communities.
Why some radiodonts evolved such a bewildering array of head carapace shapes and sizes is still poorly understood and was likely driven by a variety of factors.
Views of the carapace of Titanokorys gainesi (paratype ROMIP 65168).
Dr Caron added:
“These enigmatic animals certainly had a big impact on Cambrian seafloor ecosystems. Their limbs at the front looked like multiple stacked rakes and would have been very efficient at bringing anything they captured in their tiny spines towards the mouth. The huge dorsal carapace might have functioned like a plough.”
Honouring Professor Robert Gaines
The genus name is derived from the Greek Titans, powerful gods of huge size and from the Greek “Korys” for helmet. The species or trivial name honours Professor Robert Gaines who was instrumental in the co-discovery of the Marble Canyon fossil deposit, where some of the Titanokorys specimens were found.
The scientific paper: “A giant nektobenthic radiodont from the Burgess Shale and the significance of hurdiid carapace diversity” by J.B. Caron and J. Moysiuk published by Royal Society Open Science.
