Design of Hand Axes Reveals Distinctive Neanderthal Cultures

A study by a postgraduate researcher at the University of Southampton has found that Neanderthals were more culturally complex than previously acknowledged.  Two cultural traditions existed among Neanderthals living in what is now northern Europe between 115,000 to 35,000 years ago.  Dr Karen Ruebens from the Centre for the Archaeology of Human Origins (CAHO) and funded by the Arts and Humanities Research Council examined the design of 1,300 stone tools originating from eighty Neanderthal sites in five European countries; France, Germany, Belgium, Britain and the Netherlands.

Neanderthal Study

Her investigations uncovered new evidence that two separate hand axe traditions or designs existed – one in a region now spanning south-western France and Britain – the other in Germany and further to the East.  In addition, she found an area covering modern day Belgium and the Netherlands that demonstrates a transition between the two.  Two separate hand axe traditions or designs that have been identified by this analysis are, firstly the Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition (MTA on the map below), in a region now spanning south-western France and Britain and the Keilmessergruppen Tradition (KMG on the map below), in Germany and further to the East.

Evidence for Regionality in Neanderthal Cultures

Distinct cultures identified with a transitional zone.

Picture credit: Dr Karen Ruebens

Different Neanderthal Cultures

The map above marks the approximate boundaries of the different cultures with a transitional zone which features Mousterian with Bifacial tools (marked MBT) between the two distinct tool making cultures.  Please note, the English Channel did not exist during the time of the Neanderthals.  Low sea levels at this time in Earth’s history permitted the United Kingdom to remain part of the European mainland, the UK did not become an island until about 8,000 years ago.

Dr Ruebens commented:

“In Germany and France there appears to be two separate hand axe traditions, with clear boundaries, indicating completely separate, independent developments.  The transition zone in Belgium and Northern France indicates contact between the different groups of Neanderthals, which is generally difficult to identify but has been much talked about, especially in relation to later contacts with groups of modern humans.  This area can be seen as a melting pot of ideas where mobile groups of Neanderthals, both from the eastern and western tradition, would pass by – influencing each other’s designs and leaving behind a more varied record of bifacial tools.”

Neanderthal Hand Axes

The University of Southampton research has revealed Neanderthals in the western region made symmetrical, triangular and heart-shaped hand axes, while during the same time period, in the eastern region, they produced asymmetrically shaped bifacial knives.

This research has been published shortly after another paper shed further light on the culture of Neanderthals.  A study of Neanderthal bone tools found in France and published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) suggested that Neanderthals developed specialised tools for working animal skins many thousands of years before such tools became associated with our own species.

To read more about this research: Neanderthals Made the First Specialised Bone Tools in Europe.

Dr Ruebens went onto add:

“Distinct ways of making a hand axe were passed on from generation to generation and for long enough to become visible in the archaeological record.  This indicates a strong mechanism of social learning within these two groups and says something about the stability and connectivity of the Neanderthal populations.  Making stone tools was not merely an opportunistic task.  A lot of time, effort and tradition were invested and these tools carry a certain amount of socio-cultural information, which does not contribute directly to their function.”

The study’s extensive analysis also shows other factors which could have influenced hand axe design, such as raw material availability to Neanderthals, the function of their sites, or the repeated reuse and sharpening of tools – did not have an impact in this instance.  This research provides a new perspective on the regionality of the Neanderthal population of western Europe.

Examples of the Different Types of Hand Axe

Examples of hand axes used in the study.

Picture credit: Dr Karen Ruebens

Key to the hand axes in the picture above:

Left: Mousterian of Acheulean Tradition hand axes, from top to bottom – cordiform hand axe from Le Moustier, France; triangular hand axe from St. Just en Chaussée, France; hand axe from Lynford, UK (Karen Ruebens). Right: Keilmessergruppen Tradition hand axes, from top to bottom – keilmesser from Sesselfesgrotte, Germany; keilmesser from Abri du Musée, France; faustkeilblatt from Königsaue, Germany.

Intriguingly, this study suggests that those Neanderthals that went on to live in Britain, have closer affinities to those Neanderthals from south-western France than they do to Neanderthal populations from Germany, central and western France as well as central Europe.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the help of the University of Southampton in the compilation of this article.

Earliest Complete Fossil of a Multituberculate Found

The Mesozoic might be referred to as the “Age of Reptiles” but scurrying around the dinosaurs was a very wide variety of early mammals, descendants of which are familiar to us as placentals, monotremes or marsupials.  The problem with studying primitive mammal fossils from the Mesozoic is that for much of the time when dinosaurs roamed, mammals remained small and their delicate, light bones did not fossilise well.  The study of early mammal specimens is exceptionally difficult due to the paucity of fossil remains.

Multituberculate Mammal

Any small mammal that died, was likely to be scavenged long before fossilisation could possibly take place.  Much of what we know about Jurassic and Cretaceous mammals, for example, comes from the study of faecal remains (coprolites).  Indeed, many mammals lived in environments where fossilisation was very unlikely to occur.

The remains of mammals either hunted and killed or scavenged would sometimes be left in droppings and these could perhaps fossilise  thus preserving the undigested remains of the animal.  The fossil record of small mammals is thus made up mostly of fragments of jawbones, and teeth and it is from these tiny remains that palaeontologists have been able to piece together the story of mammalian evolution.

Chinese Fossil

However, a team of researchers writing in the academic journal “Science” have published a report on a 160-million-year-old fossil multituberculate, found in China.  This is one of the earliest examples of a multituberculate mammal known to science and indicates that these small, chisel-teethed creatures existed for over 125 million years, making them the most successful mammalian group in terms of longevity.

The New Fossil Discovery (Rugosodon eurasiaticus)

160-million-year-old multituberculate fossil.

Picture credit: University of Chicago and Chinese Academy of Sciences

Rugosodon eurasiaticus

The fossil of Rugosodon eurasiaticus is preserved in two shale slabs in part (left) and counterpart (right).  The animal is estimated to have weighed 80 grammes when alive.  The sediments at the site of discovery are lake sediments with embedded volcanic layers.  The fossil assemblage of Rugosodon also includes a number of feathered dinosaur and pterosaur remains.

The distinctive of multituberculate teeth have tiny bumps on the molars, similar in habit and size to today’s rodents, these furry creatures were probably the most abundant mammal around during the time of the dinosaurs.  Although, a very successful group, their fossil remains are extremely fragmented, but now scientists have a beautifully, near complete specimen to study.

Commenting on the discovery, which was made in the finely grained strata of Liaoning Province (China), Professor Zhe-Xi Luo (University of Chicago) stated:

“Now we finally have a compelte skeletal fossil that allows us to paint a coherent picture of the evolutionary origin of these prolific and important ancient mammals.”

Slab and Counter Slab Studied

The animal has been named Rugosodon eurasiaticus, the slab and counter slab of the fossil specimen have allowed palaeontologists to examine some of the anatomical adaptations that may have helped this group become so successful. For instance, scientists were already aware that around sixty-five million years ago, there were a number of multituberculate species that could hyper extend their ankles.  This would have made them very fast and agile.

The remains of R. eurasiaticus reveal mobile and flexible ankle bones too, although the fossil is nearly one hundred million years older.  According to the research team, the flexible ankles and its small size could have helped this group of early mammals adapt to a wide range of environmental niches, including tunnel digging and living in trees.

Scurrying Around a Jurassic Lakeside

An illustration of an ancient mammal. An illustration of R. eurasiaticus.

Picture credit: University of Chicago/April Isch

Examining the Teeth

By the dental features, Rugosodon eurasiaticus closely resembles the teeth of some multituberculate mammals of the Late Jurassic of Western Europe, suggesting that Europe and Asia had extensive mammal faunal inter-changes in the Jurassic.

Examination of the small teeth preserved in the delicate jaws of this seventeen centimetre long specimen indicate that it was an omnivore, probably hunting at night along the large lakes of this part of Jurassic China, catching worms, insects, amphibians as well as eating ferns and mosses.  This specimen is important as it suggests that later herbivorous multituberculates were descended from omnivores.

Professor Luo added:

 “Essentially, multituberculates were the first important mammal group to occupy an herbivorous niche.  They were able to exploit a part of the ecosystem that was not accessible to many other vertebrates, including other Mesozoic mammals.  This superb feeding function, together with versatile locomotor adaptations, explains why multituberculates were so successful and diverse.  Now we have a sense of what they started off with, thanks to the discovery of Rugosodon.”

For models and replicas of Jurassic prehistoric animals and other creatures: CollectA Age of Dinosaurs Models.

Those Not so Flexible Sauropods

The Sauropoda, that group of large, lizard-hipped dinosaurs with their long necks, huge bodies and long tails* have fascinated palaeontologists ever since the first enormous fossil bones of these plant-eaters were discovered.  Most natural history museums, if they are big enough, will feature sauropods amongst their dinosaur exhibits.  Although much has been learned about these Late Triassic to Late Cretaceous creatures since the days of Marsh, Cope and Riggs, palaeontologists still puzzle over many aspects of their anatomy.  For example, just how flexible were those long necks?

Sauropod Dinosaur Neck

New Study into the Long Necks of Sauropoda

A new study has been published that looks at the flexibility of sauropod necks. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Collaborative Study

In a new, collaborative study between researchers from the University of Utah, the Natural History Museum (London) and Bristol University the neck bones, and soft tissues of the necks of female ostriches have been used to try to model the flexibility of sauropod necks.  Why does this matter?  Well, the flexibility of the neck has all sorts of implications for the Sauropoda.  For example, very flexible sauropod necks would imply that these animals could reach high to feed on the tops of trees, or dip their heads very low to feed at ground level.

This feeding range, often referred to as the “feeding envelope” can be examined and contrasted amongst different sauropod genera permitting scientists to understand more about the feeding habits of certain species that co-existed.

Ostriches Studied

Previous studies had focused on the articulation and degree of movement possible by examining the cervical vertebrae (neck bones) of sauropods.  In this study, the team examined the bones and soft tissue found in ostrich necks (Struthio camelus), ostriches were chosen as they too, have elongated necks and the soft tissue such as muscle groups in the neck region are broadly comparable with that of sauropods.

The researchers measured the flexibility of the flightless birds with all their muscle tissue intact, and then slowly removed the muscles to test how this changed the situation and altered the range of movement possible.  The team’s findings suggest the soft tissues and cartilage associated with the long-necks of sauropods would have restricted their neck movements.  This has implications for the way these dinosaurs are depicted in films, books and displayed in museums.

Matthew Cobley from the University of Utah, one of the authors of the scientific paper that has been published in PLoS One (Public Library of Science) commented:

“Previous studies looked at the skeleton on its own and the assumption was that flexibility is limited by the bones of the skeleton, but our study shows it’s actually the soft tissue around it.”

The Impact on Feeding Strategies

The flexibility of the necks of these herbivores will have an effect on the feeding strategies that these creatures can adopt. There is a wide degree of variation in the shape of the cervical vertebrae, their number and the length of the neck in sauropods.  Each type of sauropod would most likely, have adaptations for exploiting food resources within a given environment.

Dinosaurs with different necks and other adaptations could reach and feed on different types of vegetation. With variation in feeding habits, an ecosystem could support a more diverse range of mega-herbivores.

Variation in Sauropod Necks – Adaptations for Different Feeding Strategies Perhaps?

Long necks for different feeding envelopes.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur/Safari Ltd

Different Sauropod Feeding Strategies

In the illustration above, examples of different sauropod anatomies can be seen, from diplodocid (top), camarasaurid (middle) and brachiosaurid (bottom).  The necks of these animals are very different, suggesting that each type of long-necked dinosaur was adapted to feeding on certain types of vegetation.  The diplodocids may have been browsers, whilst the brachiosaurs may have been better suited to feeding from the tops of trees.

It has been calculated that some large species would have had to consume as much as 400 kilogrammes of vegetation a day to sustain their immense bodies.  A herd of these herbivores would very quickly strip an area of suitable plant matter.  The competition for food amongst different species would drive the evolution of more specialised feeding and this may help explain why there is a large variation of sauropod species found in places such as the Dashanpu Quarry fossil sites in Sichuan Province, China.

These Jurassic aged sediments have revealed the fossilised bones of at least four different types of long-necked dinosaur.  Each was very probably adapted for feeding in a certain way.  Sauropods such as Mamenchisaurus and Omeisaurus with their extremely long necks would have specialised in one feeding method, whilst their contemporary, Shunosaurus with its much shorter neck would have probably browsed on other types of vegetation.

* Not all members of the Sauropoda were huge.  This is a very diverse group of Dinosauria, some sauropods such as the titanosaur Magyarosaurus  from the Hateg Formation may have reached lengths no longer than four metres and perhaps this dwarf titanosaur might have weighed about the same as a modern dairy cow.

For models and replicas of sauropods and other herbivorous dinosaurs: CollectA Prehistoric Life Models and Figures.

Texan Couple Play “Matching Pairs” with Fossilised Megalodon Tooth 

An American couple on holiday in Florida have an unusual memento of their vacation as each partner discovered part of the fossilised remains of a prehistoric shark tooth.  Last month, Texans Wes and Kerry Kirpach were holidaying at the beach resort of Venice (Florida) and during a dive off the coast to look for fossilised teeth they found the matching halves of a tooth from a Megalodon shark (Carcharodon megalodon).

Megalodon Shark

Venice is on the Gulf of Mexico coast of the Sunshine State, situated around fifty miles south of Tampa, it is regarded by many fossil hunters as the “shark tooth capital of the world” because of the wealth of shark fossil material divers and beachcombers can find.

A Carcharodon megalodon Fossil Tooth

A large fossil tooth from a Carcharodon megalodon.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Diving for Fossils

The couple have dived looking for shark teeth on many occasions and Wes was delighted to find a 9 centimetre long broken shark’s tooth, a fossil from the ferocious, whale-hunting Megalodon, which some scientists claim may have reached lengths of over fifteen metres.  Kerry found a similar sized tooth just a hour later.  Once the two pieces were examined, the cracks and breaks in the fossils could be seen to match each other, the couple had both found pieces of the same tooth.

Such an occurrence is extremely rare as depositional and tidal action will often disperse fossil fragments over a wide area, however, given the large number of fossils that have aggregated in the sea off Venice, it seems that unlikely events such as this are possible.

A Close-up View of Megalodon Jaws

The Papo Otodus megalodon model in anterior view.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Many Teeth in the Jaws

A fully grown Megalodon shark may have had up to 290 triangular teeth in its jaws and it has been claimed that the largest of these predators with its enormous jaws could swallow a Great White shark (Carcharodon carcharias) whole. The teeth of sharks are embedded into their fleshy gums and are not attached directly to the jaws.  These teeth are replaced constantly during the life-time of the animal with some sharks losing more than 20,000 teeth.  Replacement teeth steadily move forward as older teeth at the front are lost.  Shark teeth fossils are relatively common in a number of marine fossil deposits.

The broken tooth found by the Kirpach’s may be as much as four million years old.  Fortunately, for divers and for others who venture into the sea today, the Megalodon shark is believed to have become extinct around 1.6 million years ago.

A spokesperson for Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Giant sharks such as Carcharodon megalodon continue to fascinate, only yesterday one of our team members, whilst helping out a museum exhibition, was asked about their extinction.  Finding a piece of such a large prehistoric shark tooth is  rare and to have your partner come up with the matching half just a few minutes later is truly remarkable.”

Note

Following a taxonomic reassessment most scientists classify this shark species as: Otodus megalodon.

PNSO have produced a range of prehistoric shark figures including a replica of Megalodon. To view the extensive PNSO Age of Dinosaurs range: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs Models and Figures.