2018 | Everything Dinosaur Blog

9 05, 2018

A Remarkable Weather Forecast from the Cambrian

By Mike|2024-05-10T19:04:08+01:00May 9th, 2018|Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal News Stories, Geology, Main Page, Palaeontological articles, Photos/Pictures of Fossils|0 Comments

Tiny Fossils Provide Clues to Earth’s Climate 500 Million Years Ago

A joint team of scientists from France and the UK, have plotted the temperature of our planet’s oceans over half a billion years ago using a combination of fossil data and computer-based climate models. Think of it as a sort of weather forecast from the Cambrian.

A Cambrian Climate Study

This newly published research suggests that the first hard-bodied animals diversified in warms seas, heated by a greenhouse world. The team’s findings help to expand our knowledge of the environment at the time of the Cambrian explosion, a period in Earth’s history that saw a huge increase in the number and type of marine animal forms.

Life in the Late Cambrian Period

Cambrian life. — *Life in the Late Cambrian by Zdeněk Burian.*

Picture credit: Zdeněk Burian

Writing in the academic journal “Science Advances”, the scientists, led by researchers from the University of Leicester, used climate models and the chemical analysis of tiny, shelly fossils preserved in limestone from Shropshire (central England), to calculate the sea temperature during a time of rapid diversity of animal life in the Palaeozoic.

From around 540 to 510 million years ago, the fossil record shows a marked change, as during this period of Earth’s history, virtually all of the animal phyla (including the Chordata – our phylum) appeared. The idea of a “Cambrian explosion” is a little misleading, the appearance of many new forms of complex animal life may have been gradual, but in terms of the fossil record, sites such as the famous Burgess Shale of British Columbia and Yunnan Province (southern China), have revealed extensive and varied marine ecosystems with large numbers of new types of animal being recorded in the strata.

Analysis of Some of the First Shelly Fossils

Scientists had thought that for much of the Cambrian, our planet was warmer that it is today with no polar ice caps present. A study of tiny 1 mm long fossils of some of the first animals to produce a hard, shelly exoskeleton has confirmed this hypothesis. Analysis of isotopes from the tiny shells in combination with the climate models show that at high latitudes (around 65 degrees south), sea temperatures were in excess of 20 degrees Celsius.

This might seem very warm, especially when you consider that this is an evaluation of sea temperatures at approximately 65 degrees south, today, travelling to that latitude would put you on the southernmost fringes of the Southern Ocean and close to Antarctica. However, the data generated is similar to more recent, better understood, greenhouse climates such as that of the Late Cretaceous.

Reflected Light Microscopy – Brachiopod Fossils Used in the Study

Reflected light microscope images of Cambrian brachiopods. — *Reflected light microscope images of some of the brachiopod fossils (phosphatic microfossils), used in this study.*

Picture credit: Leicester University

Analysing Isotopes

Co-author of the open access paper, PhD student Thomas Hearing (University of Leicester’s School of Geography, Geology and the Environment), explained:

“Because scientists cannot directly measure sea temperatures from half a billion years ago, they have to use proxy data, these are measurable quantities that respond in a predictable way to changing climate variables like temperature. In this study, we used oxygen isotope ratios, which is a commonly used palaeothermometer. We then used acid to extract fossils about 1 mm long from blocks of limestone from Shropshire, UK, dated to between 515 – 510 million years old. Careful examination of these tiny fossils revealed that some of them have exceptionally well-preserved shell chemistry which has not changed since they grew on the Cambrian sea floor.”

High Resolution Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Images of Brachiopod Fossils Used in the Study

SEM images of brachiopods. — *Electron microscope images of some of the brachiopod fossils used in this study. Electron microscopy allows much higher resolution imaging of small structures than normal light microscopy.*

Picture credit: Leicester University

For models and replicas of invertebrates, including trilobites and other Cambrian animals: CollectA Prehistoric Life Models and Figures.

Identifying Chemical Signatures in Cambrian Fossils

Dr Tom Harvey (University of Leicester) added:

“Many marine animals incorporate chemical traces of seawater into their shells as they grow. That chemical signature is often lost over geological time, so it’s remarkable that we can identify it in such ancient fossils.”

Analyses of the oxygen isotopes of these fossils suggested very warm temperatures for high latitude seas (~65 °S), probably between 20 °C to 25 °C. To see if these were feasible sea temperatures, the researchers carried out climate model simulations for the Cambrian. The climate model scenarios suggest that the Earth’s climate was in a “typical” greenhouse state, with temperatures similar to more recent and better understood greenhouse intervals known from the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic eras. Ultimately, this study will help to expand our knowledge of the ecosystem that existed during the Cambrian.

The Highly Fossiliferous Comley Limestones (Shropshire, UK)

A thin section of highly fossiliferous rock of Cambrian age. — *A thin section slice through the trilobite-rich Comley Limestones (Shropshire, UK).*

The curves and white wavy lines in the photograph (above), are preserved exoskeletons of numerous trilobites.

Thomas Hearing concluded:

“We hope that this approach can be used by other researchers to build up a clearer picture of ancient climates where conventional climate proxy data are not available.”

The research was carried out as an international collaboration involving scientists from the University of Leicester (UK), British Geological Survey (BGS; UK), and CEREGE (France).

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the help of Leicester University in the compilation of this article.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

8 05, 2018

Happy Birthday Sir David Attenborough

By Mike|2023-10-13T08:41:39+01:00May 8th, 2018|Animal News Stories, Famous Figures, Main Page|0 Comments

Happy Birthday Sir David Attenborough

Many happy returns to Sir David Attenborough, broadcaster, naturalist and someone who has done so much to help the public understand the wonders of the natural world.

Happy Birthday Sir Attenborough

The Plastic Age

Throughout a broadcasting career that has spanned more than sixty years, Sir David has played a prominent role in highlighting the plight of the natural world. In the recent, BBC television documentary series “Blue Planet II”, the damage caused by plastic pollutants in marine environments was emphasised and this has led to a number of plans and initiatives to reduce plastic use, especially items that are classed as “single use plastics”, such as plastic drinking straws.

Sir David Attenborough

The team behind “Blue Planet II”, including the narrator, Sir David, has helped raise awareness about the dangers of plastic pollution. In the highly praised television series, there was one particularly distressing scene where a mother pilot whale was filmed holding her dead calf, which is believed to have died after consuming the mother’s milk which had been contaminated with toxic chemicals resulting from the breakdown of plastic in the marine environment.

Nonagenarian and Still Campaigning for the Natural World

Sir David Attenborough was born on this day in 1926, all the team members at Everything Dinosaur would like to take this opportunity to wish Sir David many happy returns.

Keep on campaigning sir.

In the meantime, visit the award-winning Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

7 05, 2018

Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus Makeover

By Mike|2023-10-13T08:46:59+01:00May 7th, 2018|Dinosaur Fans, Everything Dinosaur Products, Main Page, Photos of Everything Dinosaur Products|0 Comments

A Beautiful Kronosaurus Model Display

In 2017, the American-based, award-winning model manufacturer Safari Ltd introduced two marine reptiles into their “Wild Safari Prehistoric World” range of prehistoric animal figures. The smaller of these two models, was the Plesiosuchus, (Plee-see-oh-sook-us), a detailed replica of a marine crocodile, a member of the Metriorhynchidae and as such, distantly related to today’s crocodiles. The second of the marine reptiles, was a depiction of a giant predator, a pliosaur, an animal that has, very fortunately, no modern descendants – Kronosaurus. Talented model maker and designer Martin Garratt has customised the Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus figure and produced a stunning display piece.

The Customised Kronosaurus Replica

Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus on display. — *A Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus model repainted by Martin Garratt of UMF Models.*

Picture credit: UMF Models (Martin Garratt)

The Marine Reptile Kronosaurus

Kronosaurus (Kroe-noe-sore-us), is best known from fossils discovered in Australia, although other remains assigned to this genus have been found in South America. Estimated to have reached lengths in excess of nine metres, Kronosaurus was an apex predator of marine environments during the Early Cretaceous.

Its jaws were huge and although mistaken for an ichthyosaur when first studied, it was correctly identified as a member of the Pliosauridae in 1924. Safari Ltd introduced a large Kronosaurus figure into their scale model series “Carnegie Collectibles”, some years ago and when this range was retired, it was not long before a Kronosaurus model was added to the company’s Wild Safari Prehistoric World range.

The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus

Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus marine reptile model. — *Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus figure.*

Kronosaurus Diorama

The beautifully detailed figures in the Wild Safari Prehistoric World range provide model makers and sculptors with plenty of scope when it comes to designing unique dioramas. In Martin’s display piece, the Kronosaurus has been carefully attached to a rock which acts as a stand for the figure. This permits the model to be depicted in a dramatic pose, as if this ferocious predator is swimming rapidly upwards to attack prey from underneath. This predation strategy is observed in many pelagic marine predators today, such as the Great White Shark (C. carcharias). Indeed, the countershading on the original Safari Ltd Kronosaurus and modified by Martin in his model, is typical of underwater ambush predators.

Martin has chosen a more muted colour scheme with dark bands, running across the back and down the flanks. Note also, that he has added a stabilising, diamond-shaped tail rudder, a feature not preserved in the fossil record for a pliosaur, as far as we at Everything Dinosaur are aware, but since the tail was mainly used for steering (the four, large flippers provided propulsion), the addition of this rudder makes anatomical sense.

A Skilfully Created Marine Reptile Diorama

The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus model has been given a makeover. — *Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus replica display.*

Picture credit: UMF Models (Martin Garratt)

To view the Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus figure and the other models in this range: Safari Ltd/Wild Safari Prehistoric World.

Amazing Detail

Martin’s diorama shows some amazing detail and we really admire those little flourishes such as the large sea shell at the base of the beautifully crafted rock and the evidence of sea weed. The teeth have been recoloured to give them a more realistic and weathered look. The underbelly is an off-white colour and blends seamlessly into the muted blues and subtle greys of the countershading.

A Close-up View of the Head Showing the Repainted Teeth

Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus model display. — *The Wild Safari Prehistoric World Kronosaurus model has been given a makeover.*

Picture credit: UMF Models (Martin Garratt)

A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur stated:

“The quality of the Safari Ltd prehistoric animal replicas gives model makers a head start when it comes to creating their own unique dioramas. Martin has done a fantastic job on customising this Kronosaurus model to create a museum quality display.”

Our thanks to Martin and Marilyn of UMF models for sharing these pictures with us.

Visit Everything Dinosaur’s website: Everything Dinosaur.

6 05, 2018

Dense Bones and Other Aquatic Adaptations in Spinosaurs

By Mike|2023-10-13T09:03:04+01:00May 6th, 2018|Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal News Stories, Dinosaur Fans, Main Page, Palaeontological articles|1 Comment

South American Giant Provides Further Information on Enigmatic Spinosaurs

A partial leg bone found in north-eastern Brazil has helped scientists to better understand the adaptations members of the Spinosauridae may have evolved to help them with their semi-aquatic lifestyles. Furthermore, the fragmentary fossil, a large partial tibia from the Aptian-Albian Romualdo Formation, (Araripe Basin, north-eastern Brazil), when compared to other spinosaur remains, indicates an individual dinosaur much larger than other South American spinosaurids. This single fossil suggests a sub-adult animal around ten metres in length, far larger than the other South American spinosaurids from the Araripe Basin such as Irritator and Angaturama.

Studying the Spinosauridae

A South American Lagoon Around 115-110 Million Years Ago – A Spinosaurid Attacks a Pterosaur

Spinosaur attacks a Pterosaur. — *An illustration of a South American Spinosaur attacking a pterosaur.*

Picture credit: Julio Lacerda

For models and replicas of members of the Spinosauridae and other theropod dinosaurs: CollectA Deluxe Prehistoric Life Models.

Sail-back Dinosaur from the Heart of the Brazilian Outback

The Brazilian dinosaur fossil is providing another piece of the puzzle as palaeontologists strive to better understand the enigmatic spinosaurids. The discovery of the fossil bone and its implications for Spinosaur research has been published in the academic journal “Cretaceous Research”. The research was led by a team of Brazilian palaeontologists in collaboration with colleagues from Yale University, the University of Bonn and Trinity College (Dublin).

The partial tibia (lower leg bone) was found in Ceará, a state in the heart of the Brazilian outback. Although only a fragment of bone, its size in relation to other spinosaurid fossils suggests a dinosaur measuring about ten metres in length, considerably bigger than other South American members of the Spinosauridae.

The Partial Tibia Bone (Various Views)

Views of the Spinosaur fossil material — *Views and cross-sectional analysis of the spinosaur partial tibia fossil (LVP-PV-0042).*

Picture credit: Cretaceous Research

Large Predators with an Aquatic Lifestyle

Over the last five years or so, there have been a number of papers published looking at how these large predators lived. Many palaeontologists believe that these theropods adopted a specialist lifestyle, becoming semi-aquatic and essentially piscivores. Interest in these enigmatic dinosaurs has certainly been piqued in recent years, especially with the publication of a fascinating paper in 2014 that proposed that Spinosaurus aegyptiacus was a semi-aquatic, obligate quadruped.

The partial tibia has anatomical traits previously only observed in the north African S. aegyptiacus, traits such as a reduced fibular crest and dense bones (osteosclerotic bones). These types of bones are characteristic of the limb bones of vertebrates that spend a lot of their time in water. The leg bones of hippos, for example, exhibit this condition. The partial tibia from north-eastern Brazil, supports the idea that spinosaurids were adapted to an aquatic environment, in addition, the Brazilian fossil is many millions of years older than those fossils associated with S. aegyptiacus, so, this suggests that high bone compactness was already present in Brazilian spinosaurids long before S. aegyptiacus evolved.

Cross-sectional Views of LPP-PV-0042 Indicating Bone Density and Growth Rate

Growth rate and density of Araripe Basin dinosaur bone. — *An assessment of the bone density observed in LPP-PV-0042 along with histology of bone indicating growth rate.*

Picture credit: Cretaceous Research

Fossilised bone cells in detail, observed under the microscope. Different growth pulses of the animal are represented by the red arrows. Absence of certain characteristics in the bone tissue lead palaeontologists to conclude the spinosaurid was a sub-adult and still growing when it died.

To read Everything Dinosaur’s article on the 2014 Spinosaurus paper: Spinosaurus – Four Legs are Better Than Two.

“Heavy Bones” of the Spinosauridae

The study was led by postgraduate student Tito Aureliano (Campinas State University, Unicamp, Brazil), along with researchers from the Federal University of Sao Carlos (Brazil). The dense bones of the Brazilian Spinosaur would have helped the animal to dive and to move in water in a similar way to a hippopotamus.

The dense bones are analogous to the lead weights used by divers to counteract their own buoyancy. This research suggests that osteosclerotic bones were present in the South American Spinosaurinae at least ten million years earlier than those associated with their north African cousins. It is not known when osteosclerotic bones evolved in spinosaurs, but this characteristic may have evolved relatively early in these types of dinosaurs.

Bone Density Comparisons

Spinosaur limb bones are much more dense than most other dinosaurs — *Cross sections of vertebrate bones including many dinosaurs showing bone density versus pneumaticity within the Dinosauria.*

Picture credit: Cretaceous Research

Commenting on the significance of this study, Tito Aureliano stated:

“It may be possible that Brazilian spinosaurs were the first to adopt this way of life. Now we need to investigate an even older species.”

An Example of Convergent Evolution

Several types of not-closely related vertebrates have dense bones, reflecting an adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle. Penguins, crocodiles and sealions along with hippos and spinosaurids have these types of bones, this is an example of convergent evolution.

Aline Ghilardi (Federal University of Sao Carlos) explained:

“It is interesting how this adaptation evolved multiple times in different groups of animals that adopted the same lifestyle.”

The spinosaurids evolved in a different direction when compared to most of the Theropoda. Whilst most dinosaurs evolved ways to make the skeleton lighter, epitomised in the extreme pneumaticity observed in birds, the spinosaurs developed a way to make their skeleton heavier. This aided them when it came to occupying a very distinct and specialised niche amongst the Dinosauria.

South American Giants

South America might be famous for its huge Cretaceous plant-eating dinosaurs such as the titanosaurids Argentinosaurus, Patagotitan and Dreadnoughtus but the partial tibia bone hints at super-sized predators too. An analysis of the fossilised cells showed that the studied dinosaur had not reached its maximum size by the time of its death and was still growing. This indicates that these dinosaurs could reach larger sizes than previously thought, the Araripe Basin Spinosaurinae could have been giants, which would make them the top predators of the Cretaceous coastal lagoons of Ceará.

South American Spinosaur Size Comparison

Spinosaur size comparison from the Araripe Basin. — *Spinosaurid size comparison based on known fossil material.*

Picture credit: Cretaceous Research

The image (above), shows all the known spinosaurid fossils from the Araripe Basin. The fossil used in this study is marked in pink (F). Note, figure 1 shows the fossil bones not to scale but figure 2 provides a scale comparison between the spinosaur specimens from the Araripe Basin. The largest spinosaurid found to date (LPP-PV-0042), was the subject of the research paper.

Pterosaur Vertebrae from Ceará

The Ceará state has been synonymous with amazing spinosaur fossil finds. In 2004, researchers led by the famous French palaeontologist Eric Buffetaut, described a remarkable fossil find from this region, three articulated pterosaur vertebrae (Ornithocheiridae) were found with the tooth of a spinosaurid embedded in one of the bones. This fossil represents direct evidence that spinosaurs included other prey items in their diets as well as fish. The broken tooth also provides evidence that the light bones of pterosaurs were much stronger than previously assumed.

A Food Chain of the Lagoonal Environment (Araripe Basin in the Early Cretaceous)

Araripe Basin (lagoon) food chain. — *Proposed food chain showing LPP-PV-0042 as apex predator. pterosaurs were on the menu to.*

Picture credit: Cretaceous Research

Lots of questions about the Spinosauridae remain. For example, whether these aquatic adaptations are related to the establishment of a large system of lagoons between South America and Africa caused by the opening of the Atlantic Ocean during this period in Earth’s history. As with many whales today, was the adaptation of an aquatic lifestyle the trigger that enabled these theropods to evolve into giants?

Our thanks to Tito Aureliano ((Campinas State University, Unicamp, Brazil) for their help in the compilation of this article.

The scientific paper: “Semi-aquatic Adaptations in a Spinosaur from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil” by Tito Aureliano, Aline M. Ghilardi, Pedro V. Buck, Matteo Fabbri, Adun Samathi, Rafael Delcourt, Marcelo A. Fernandes and Martin Sander published in the journal Cretaceous Research.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

5 05, 2018

New Rebor Chickenosaurus is in Stock

By Mike|2024-05-10T21:17:49+01:00May 5th, 2018|Dinosaur Fans, Everything Dinosaur News and Updates, Everything Dinosaur Products, Main Page, Photos of Everything Dinosaur Products, Press Releases|0 Comments

Rebor Chickenosaurus Figure is in Stock at Everything Dinosaur

The latest figure in the Rebor Oddities range has arrived and what a fascinating replica it is. The Rebor Chickenosaurus represents a genetically modified dinosaur embryo, the beautifully crafted figure is presented in a clear, egg-shaped display piece complete with a light-up base.

The Latest Addition to the Rebor Oddities Range – Rebor Chickenosaurus Genetically Engineered Dinosaur Embryo

Rebor Chickenosaurus model. — *The Rebor Chickenosaurus figure.*

The Rebor Chickenosaurus – A Genetically Engineered Dinosaur

Rebor has built a deserved reputation for developing innovative prehistoric animal figures and replicas and their Chickenosaurus is a welcome addition to the growing Rebor product portfolio. The model itself, measures around nine centimetres long and when stood on its bespoke display base the figure stands about twelve centimetres high. The detail on the embryo is amazing, it’s as if the shell of a dinosaur egg has been peeled away and you are able to observe the growing dinosaur baby.

A Fantastic Collectors’ Item – The Rebor Chickenosaurus Dinosaur Embryo

The Rebor Chickenosaurus figure. — *At home amongst the curiosities, the Rebor Chickenosaurus dinosaur figure.*

To view the Rebor Chickenosaurus, which is currently available with a free Rebor Utahraptor replica (Wind Hunter) 3-D lenticular poster (whilst stocks last), simply visit the Rebor product section of Everything Dinosaur’s website: Rebor Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animal Models.

Chickens are Dinosaurs

With most palaeontologists classifying the Dinosauria into two main groups, the avian dinosaurs (Aves – birds) and the non-avian dinosaurs, the extinct branch of the Dinosauria consisting of the likes of Triceratops, Stegosaurus, Allosaurus, Velociraptor and Tyrannosaurus rex, it is technically correct to refer birds such as chickens as dinosaurs.

This new Rebor figure celebrates the link between dinosaurs and birds and provides collectors with an opportunity to add something unusual and novel to their model collection. The figure also pays homage to the “Jurassic Park/Jurassic World” movies and to the Michael Crichton novel that the first film, in this hugely successful franchise, was based upon. Genetically engineered dinosaurs are certainly in vogue with movie goers, although scientists are a long way from actually being able to recreate a living, breathing dinosaur by manipulating avian genes.

To read an article from 2009, that outlines the use of chicken embryos in a study that involves manipulation of genes to awaken dormant dinosaur traits in birds: The “Dino-chicken Project”.

A Baby Dinosaur in the Egg

The Rebor Chickenosaurus embryo figure. — *The Rebor Chickenosaurus figure.*

As Large as a Swan’s Egg

Measuring a fraction under twelve centimetres when the figure is placed on its light-up base, the egg is roughly the size of a Mute swan’s egg and it makes a fascinating display piece. We have heard of one customer of Everything Dinosaur who was going to use the figure as a centre piece for a table display for a lunchtime service. We hope that eggs and chicken are on the menu.

A Centrepiece in Many Collections

A genetically engineered dinosaur - Rebor Chickenosaurus. — *The Rebor Chickenosaurus dinosaur embryo model.*

Rebor Chickenosaurus – A Special Promotional Offer

A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“This is a novel dinosaur figure. The “Oddities” range gives Rebor a licence to produce innovative and eye-catching figures, lots of manufacturers produce models of Theropod dinosaurs, but a figure of a theropod dinosaur embryo with its own light-up base is a first, as far as we are aware. Whilst model dioramas such as the Rebor King T. rex and the Rebor Fallen Queen depict death, this beautifully designed item depicts life.”

Everything Dinosaur will be providing an amazing three-dimensional lenticular poster of the Rebor Utahraptor replica (Wind Hunter) with every Chickenosaurus. The lenticular poster will be sent out free with every purchase of the Rebor Chickenosaurus. This special promotional offer will be available until stocks last.

The Rebor Utahraptor (Wind Hunter) 3-D Lenticular Poster

Rebor Utahraptor 3-D poster. — *The Rebor Utahraptor Wind Hunter 3D lenticular poster. Available whilst stocks last.*

Visit the award-winning, user friendly Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

4 05, 2018

Please Don’t Throw Rocks an Important Request

By Mike|2024-05-10T21:18:33+01:00May 4th, 2018|Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal News Stories, Dinosaur Fans, Main Page|0 Comments

Please Don’t Vandalise our Dinosaur Tracks

Visitors to the Red Fleet State Park in Utah have been requested to refrain from throwing rocks into water as some of these rocks are actually the fossil footprints of dinosaurs from the Early Jurassic. Tourists to the Park, which is located ten miles north of the small town of Vernal, off Highway 191 in north-eastern Utah, have been throwing lumps of sandstone into a reservoir and some of these pieces of rock contain the 200-million-year-old fossilised tracks of dinosaurs.

Examining a Dinosaur Footprint at Red Fleet State Park

Dinosaur fossil footprint (Utah). — *One of the three-toed dinosaur tracks at Red Fleet State Park (Utah).*

Picture credit: Utah State Parks

Commenting on this very unusual tourist problem, Park Manager Josh Hansen stated:

“While this problem is quite alarming, often times the people who are doing this have no idea they could be destroying millions of years of history. Some of the tracks are very distinct to the layperson, but just as many are not. That is why it is important to not disturb any rocks at the dinosaur trackway.”

Dilophosaurus Dinosaur Tracks

The Red Fleet State Park attracts tourists from far and wide. It is a haven for bikers, walkers, campers and for outdoor sports enthusiasts and the area is famous for its dinosaur track sites. However, the ancient trace fossils, making this attraction a real-life “Jurassic Park”, are being damaged and destroyed, either unwittingly or through deliberate vandalism. The large, three-toed prints (tridactyl prints) represent carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods), a number of these tracks have been attributed to the Early Jurassic species Dilophosaurus wetherilli.

Devan Chavez, a spokesman for the Utah Division of State Parks, who has corresponded with Everything Dinosaur, has stated that at least ten of the larger footprints left by dinosaurs, ranging from eight to forty-three centimetres in size, have been destroyed in the last six months alone. Josh Hanson explained that by deteriorating the track site, people are taking away the experience from thousands of others. Not only that, but this act also constitutes a crime.

One of the Three-toed Dinosaur Footprints at the Park

Picture credit: Utah State Parks

Utah has very strict laws in place to help preserve its precious prehistoric heritage. Anyone caught vandalising these fossil sites can face very severe penalties, including hefty fines and even imprisonment. Problems with damage to dinosaur fossils are not just limited to this single tourist attraction. Everything Dinosaur has reported on a number of incidents of fossil theft and vandalism in the state of Utah.

To read about the damage to a dinosaur bone at the nearby Dinosaur National Monument (Utah): Fossil Damaged at Dinosaur National Monument.

The Park authorities were keen to stress that it is illegal to displace rocks that contain trace fossils and disturbing fossil sites would be regarded as an act of vandalism.

Helping to Educate Visitors

Park staff have taken steps to help raise awareness, the Park’s blog site has covered this issue and the number of signs around the Park alerting visitors to the problem have been increased. Utah State Parks believes education can play a big part in stopping this kind of behaviour. To help combat it, they have been asking everyone to spread the word. Everything Dinosaur is happy to help where it can to publicise this problem and to play a role in helping to prevent further damage.

Visitors are requested not to throw any rocks in the dinosaur track area at Red Fleet State Park. Please help the authorities keep the area preserved and beautiful for visitors both tomorrow and for generations to come.

Everything Dinosaur acknowledges the assistance of Utah State Parks in the compilation of this article.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

3 05, 2018

The First Beak Under the Noses of Scientists

By Mike|2023-10-13T21:10:49+01:00May 3rd, 2018|Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal News Stories, Dinosaur Fans, Main Page, Palaeontological articles, Photos/Pictures of Fossils|0 Comments

Inspiring Ichthyornis – Top of the Pecking Order

As a very young boy, I remember eagerly striving to complete my Brooke Bond “Prehistoric Animals” card collection. This was a set of fifty cards to collect, given away free with packets of tea. One of the cards featured a pair of toothed, prehistoric birds, a large, reddish coloured Hesperornis which was being mobbed by a couple of tern-like birds, this was my first introduction to Ichthyornis. Perhaps, the first time that I realised that birds (at least primitive, toothed birds), lived alongside dinosaurs.

How wonderful to read this week that Ichthyornis, thanks to a pieced together three-dimensional skull, may be providing palaeontologists with fresh insights into avian evolution. The Hesperornis/Ichthyornis picture card may have been burned into my conscience long ago, but it is refreshing to think that this ancient bird may represent a pivotal moment in the transition from dinosaurs to modern-day birds and its significance has only just come to light. A team of international scientists have published a paper proposing that Ichthyornis may have had one of the first, true bird-like beaks.

The Brooke Bond Picture Card

Hesperornis and Ichthyornis — *Hesperornis catching a fish, with Ichthyornis in close attention.*

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur/Brooke Bond

Toothy Bird with the Beginnings of a Beak

Writing in the journal “Nature”, researchers report on the analysis of beautifully preserved three-dimensional Ichthyornis (I. dispar) fossil skull that is providing new evidence on the evolution of the avian head and how the skull and beaks of birds evolved from their dinosaurian ancestors.

A Three-Dimensional Image of Ichthyornis Skull Material Indicates the Tip of the Premaxillary Formed the First Beak

The tip of the premaxillary forms the first beak. — *A computer generated image showing the life position of the fossil bones in the three-dimensional Ichthyornis skull.*

Picture credit: Yale Office of Public Affairs and Communications

Ichthyornis dispar

Known from fragmentary fossils from Kansas and named back in 1872 by Yale University’s Othniel Charles Marsh, it seems fitting that this new study into one of the first toothed birds described, has been led by scientists from Yale University. Working in conjunction with colleagues from the University of Kansas, Fort Hays State University, Alabama Museum of Natural History and the McWane Science Centre (Alabama), the team report on new specimens with three-dimensional cranial remains, including one example of a complete skull and two previously overlooked cranial elements that were part of the original Yale specimen examined by Marsh.

Using CT scans and sophisticated computer modelling, individual skull and jaw bones were scanned and reproduced in three-dimensions. This allowed a complete skull to be constructed revealing new details about the transition from dinosaur skull to a more modern bird skull.

The Transition from Dinosaur Skull to Bird Skull

Yale University palaeontologist and lead author of the study Bhart-Anjan Bhullar commented:

“Right under our noses this whole time was an amazing, transitional bird. It has a modern-looking brain along with a remarkably dinosaurian jaw muscle configuration.”

Ichthyornis is part of the biota of the Western Interior Seaway, a shallow sea that split North America in two during the Late Cretaceous. It has been regarded as an early version of a tern or gull, but its size is unknown as the few fossils found represent individuals of different sizes, however, it probably had a wingspan of no more than sixty centimetres, making Ichthyornis slightly smaller than today’s Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), a bird which fills the same ecological niche as the Mesozoic Ichthyornis.

Using the Latest Research, a New Reconstruction of Ichthyornis dispar was Produced

Ichthyornis life reconstruction. — *A life reconstruction of Ichthyornis.*

Picture credit: Yale Office of Public Affairs and Communications

Ichthyornis – The Evolution of a Beak

Having built a three-dimensional model of the skull and jaw bones, the researchers were able to note that the premaxillary bone in the upper jaw had become elongated and this, working in conjunction with a keratinous tip on the lower jaw formed the first “proto-beak”. Ichthyornis dispar shows scientists what the first type of bird beak looked like. This beak may have evolved as the function of the hands was increasingly limited as they were adapted to form a more effective wing.

The grasping hands of the maniraptoran dinosaurs were no longer able to grasp and manipulate objects so the jaws had to take on an additional function, secondary to their main function – dispatching and consuming prey.

The Beak of Ichthyornis

Picture credit: Yale Office of Public Affairs and Communications

Although maniraptoran dinosaurs may not have been able to pronate their hands like us and they lacked an opposable thumb, as forelimbs and hands evolved into wings, so the jaws took over the function of the digits and manus.

Bhart-Anjan Bhullar stated:

“The first beak was a horn-covered pincer tip at the end of the jaw. The remainder of the jaw was filled with teeth. At its origin, the beak was a precision grasping mechanism that served as a surrogate hand as the hands transformed into wings.”

The research team conducted its analysis using CT-scan technology, combined with specimens from the Yale Peabody Museum of Natural History; the Sternberg Museum of Natural History in Hays, Kansas, the Alabama Museum of Natural History; the University of Kansas Biodiversity Institute and the Black Hills Institute of Geological Research (South Dakota).

Bird Beaks versus Bird-hipped Dinosaur Beaks

The modern bird beak is a unique organ amongst vertebrates, although notably most derived ornithischian (bird-hipped) dinosaurs possessed a beak, formed from the unique predentary bone in the lower jaw and a roughened, extension of the premaxilla (or the rostral in the case of ceratopsians), in the upper jaw, which allowed the attachment of a keratinous tip which in conjunction formed the beak-like structure – believed to be an adaptation to assist with cropping vegetation.

This study of Ichthyornis suggests that the first bird beak was not the long organ seen in modern birds, but a little pincer tip to grasp and manipulate objects.

A Chasmosaurine Ceratopsian with the Roughened Rostral and the Predentary Forming a Plant-cropping Beak

PNSO Doyle the Triceratops model has an articlated lower jaw — *The PNSO Doyle the Triceratops model has an articulated jaw.*

The picture (above) shows a ceratopsian figure from the PNSO model range.

To view these figures: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs Models.

Fresh Insight into the Evolution of Extant Bird Skulls

The scientists conclude that their study offers new insights into how modern birds’ skulls formed. Along with its transitional beak, Ichthyornis dispar had a brain similar to that seen in extant birds but a temporal region of the skull that was reminiscent of a dinosaur. This suggests that during the evolution of Aves, the brain transformed first, possibly to adapt to a volant (aerial) lifestyle, whilst the remainder of the skull retained the ancestral features associated with the Dinosauria.

Ichthyornis retained a large adductor chamber bounded at the top by substantial bony remnants of the ancestral reptilian upper temporal fenestra (hole in the skull). This combination of features indicates that important attributes of the avian brain and palate evolved before the reduction of jaw musculature and the full transformation of the beak.

The Beak of Ichthyornis Grasping a Mollusc

Holding a mollusc in its beak. — *An illustration of an Ichthyornis holding a mollusc in its beak.*

Picture credit: Michael Hanson/Bhart-Anjan Bhullar

I may never have completed my Brooke Bond card collection, but at least, thanks to this new Ichthyornis study, our understanding of the evolution of the beak in birds is more complete.

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2 05, 2018

A Sensational Jinzhousaurus by Zhao Chuang

By Mike|2024-05-10T21:19:02+01:00May 2nd, 2018|Adobe CS5, Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Drawings, Dinosaur Fans, Main Page|0 Comments

Jinzhousaurus Illustrated

Renowned Chinese palaeoartist Zhao Chuang has produced stunning illustrations of many dinosaurs and prehistoric animals. It is great to see that a lot of his work depicts dinosaurs that once roamed China. Today, we feature an illustration of the ornithischian dinosaur Jinzhousaurus (J. yangi) being attacked by a flock of dromaeosaurids.

Jinzhousaurus yangi Ambushed by Dromaeosaurid Dinosaurs

Jinzhousaurus being attacked (illustration by Zhao Chuang). — *Jinzhousaurus from the Yixian Formation of China being attacked by a pack of dromaeosaurids, probably Sinornithosaurus.*

Picture credit: Zhao Chuang

View the PNSO prehistoric animal models: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs.

Jinzhousaurus yangi

The picture (above) shows a very colourful Jinzhousaurus being attacked by a trio of theropod dinosaurs. Jinzhousaurus is known from a single, highly compressed specimen which includes most of the skeleton and skull. It lived around 122 million years ago (early Aptian faunal stage of the Early Cretaceous) in north-eastern China and is one of the ornithischian constituents of the Yixian Formation palaeobiota.

This herbivorous dinosaur measured around five metres in length. Where Jinzhousaurus sits on the dinosaur family tree remains uncertain. Despite well preserved (if somewhat flattened remains), the exact taxonomic position of this dinosaur is contentious. When first described in 2001, it was regarded as a member of the iguanodontids (hence the prominent thumb spike painted by Zhao Chuang). Recent studies have proposed that it was more closely related to the duck-billed dinosaurs.

Jinzhousaurus shows a number of primitive and more derived anatomical characteristics so its placement within the Ornithopoda remains problematic. Current thinking is that it was a member of the Hadrosauroidea, a clade of ornithischian dinosaurs that includes duck-billed dinosaurs (hadrosaurids) and all dinosaurs more closely related to them than to Iguanodon.

Which Raptor?

The trio of feathered raptors engaged in combat could represent a number of dinosaur species. Our notes on Zhao Chuang’s illustration do not define the dinosaurs concerned. Several dromaeosaurids and troodontids are known from the Yixian Formation. If we were to guess, then the three attacking theropods illustrated by Zhao Chuang could represent Sinornithosaurus as fossils of this dromaeosaurid come from the same bedding planes (Dawangzhangzi Bed) of the Yixian Formation.

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1 05, 2018

Unlocking the Secrets of the Insect in Amber Fossilisation Process

By Mike|2023-10-13T21:23:38+01:00May 1st, 2018|Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal News Stories, Main Page, Palaeontological articles|1 Comment

Preservation Bias in Amber Fossilisation Examined

Fossils preserved in amber can give scientists unique insights into ancient ecosystems. Petrified tree resin can provide a record of some of the smaller members of a prehistoric woodland habitat such as the insects, mites and spiders. Spores and pollen grains trapped inside a nodule allow palaeobotanists the opportunity to assess the composition of the flora of a 100-million-year-old Cretaceous tropical forest, but all may not be as it seems. Fossils in amber appear, on their surface, to be perfectly preserved, which in turn suggests that the amber fossil record is perfect and unbiased. This is not the case, all that glitters inside an amber nodule may not be hidden palaeontological treasure.

A Mosquito Preserved in Amber – But How Much of the Insect is There?

Mosquito fossil preserved in amber. — *Amber can provide a window into ancient ecosystems, but what factors affect the preservation process?*

Picture credit: Oregon State University

Fossils Preserved in Amber

However, recent advances in three-dimensional imaging techniques, specifically synchrotron tomography, have allowed researchers to look inside amber-entombed fossils and observe that preservation is highly variable. Many specimens are lacking some or all internal soft tissues, and some specimens are even lacking the more decay-resistant cuticle and are simply empty moulds stained in a life-like colour by remnant organic carbon.

With so many amazing discoveries being made, particularly in burmite from Myanmar, a team of scientists set about examining the amber fossil record in order to assess any potential preservation bias that might exist, with a focus on prehistoric insects.

In the project, the researchers used a serious of laboratory experiments to test the effect of three variables, resin (the un-fossilised precursor to amber) chemistry, gut biota, and dehydration prior to entombment, on the decay of a fruit fly engulfed in resin to better understand the controls on the fossil record of insects in amber.

The team discovered that resin chemistry has a large effect on decay: flies entombed in Wollemia (W. nobilis) tree resin retained essentially all of their external and internal morphology even after one and a half years, whereas flies entombed in Pinus (Scots Pine P. sylvestris) tree resin, were nothing but empty moulds after the same length of time.

Fruit Flies Being Entombed in Tree Resin

Fruit flies (arrowed) become trapped in tree resin. — Part of the experiment – fruit flies being embedded in tree resin. The fruit flies are indicated by the arrows.

Gut biota had a smaller effect on decay: flies with an intact gut microbiota showed more rapid decay, as indicated by more extensive production of decay gases, than flies that were treated with an antibiotic prior to entombment. Dehydration prior to entombment also enhanced decay, presumably because resin has very effective decay-inhibiting properties, and therefore any delay in embedding a carcass in resin enhances decay. These three variables influence the preservation of fossils in amber, and therefore can impart a bias on the fossil record of insects in amber. Writing in the academic journal “PLOS One”, the researchers concluded that, in particular, resin chemistry and gut biota may strongly influence the amber fossil record.

Synchrotron Images and a Three-Dimensional Reconstruction of the Fruit Fly Being Constructed

A synchrotron was used to scan the fruit flies entombed in the tree resin. — *A synchrotron scan of the experiments, showing three different planes of the scan, and a 3-D reconstruction in progress.*

The Chemistry of Tree Resin

Resin chemistry is the most likely control on whether or not a specific fossil site preserves the most decay-prone morphological features on the most decay-prone components of an ecosystem. This could be a particularly confounding bias in the amber fossil record because the composition of the herbivore fauna (including herbivorous insects) is thought to be one control on the composition of resin chemistry; therefore, the composition of a faunal assemblage may influence whether or not it fossilises in amber. Gut biota variations may also influence preservational variation, particularly among amber sites or specimens with similar chemistry.

Most importantly, the amber fossil record should not be viewed as a perfect record of an ancient ecosystem. Rather, it must be viewed with a critical eye, and an understanding that information about an extinct organism can be lost during fossilisation in amber.

The scientific paper: “Unlocking Preservation Bias in the Amber Insect Fossil Record Through Experimental Decay” by Victoria E. McCoy , Carmen Soriano, Mirko Pegoraro, Ting Luo, Arnoud Boom, Betsy Foxman and Sarah E. Gabbott published in PLOS One.

Link to the paper open access paper: The Scientific Paper.

Everything Dinosaur would like to thank Victoria McCoy (School of Geography, Geology and Environment, University of Leicester and the Steinmann-Institut für Geologie, Mineralogie und Paläontologie, Universität Bonn, Bonn, Germany), for her assistance with the compilation of this article.

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1 05, 2018

Fake Reviews and Feedback Some Important News

By Mike|2024-05-10T21:19:33+01:00May 1st, 2018|General Teaching|Comments Off on Fake Reviews and Feedback Some Important News

Fake Reviews and Feedback

Genuine teaching reviews posted up on Everything Dinosaur’s websites.

In the UK at the moment, there is a lot of media coverage about fake reviews. A BBC investigation has found that fake on-line reviews are being openly traded on the worldwide web. In a radio programme broadcast on BBC 5 live, an investigator was able to purchase a false, 5-star recommendation placed on one of the world’s leading review websites, Trustpilot. The BBC programme also uncovered on-line forums and closed groups where Amazon shoppers are offered full refunds in exchange for product reviews. Both Trustpilot and Amazon have stated that they do not tolerate false reviews.

Genuine Teaching Reviews

At Everything Dinosaur, we know how many customers rely on the information contained within testimonials and reviews before opting to either make a purchase or to use the company’s services. Every single review either posted onto our website, or on our Feefo account and shown on our website, or a dinosaur workshop review posted up here on this site, is genuine. We have never indulged in such practices, trying to mislead potential customers by purchasing fake reviews.

Visit Everything Dinosaur: Everything Dinosaur.

Everything Dinosaur has never purchased Facebook “likes”, Google reviews or undertaken any form of unscrupulous practice in a bid to boost our profile and ratings. We pride ourselves in being an honest and ethical team that does all it can to help and support our customers.

The Latest Dinosaur Workshop Reviews – All Genuine from Teachers and Teaching Assistants Who Have Witnessed our Work

Teaching Feedback. — *Five stars for Everything Dinosaur! Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.*

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Let our Service and Products Speak for Themselves

Currently, at the time of writing, Everything Dinosaur has 489 verified Feefo reviews posted up onto its main website: Everything Dinosaur in addition, we have over 1,685 comments and reviews posted by customers on this website too, a total of over 2,170, genuine customer reviews and comments. We have a 5-star rating with Feefo and have earned the prestigious Gold Trusted Service Award from that company.

Genuine Reviews from Real People

Top marks from Feefo for Everything Dinosaur. — *Everything Dinosaur 5-stars on Feefo. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.*

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Our thanks to all those educationalists who posted up helpful and informative teaching reviews.

A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur stated:

“Feedback, customer comments and reviews are very important to us. We use this information to help improve our customer service and the various workshops that we deliver in schools. We do all we can to help our customers and the schools that we work with and we are immensely proud of our consistently high ratings for customer satisfaction and service. Our reviews, just like our company can be trusted.”

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