Prehistoric Elephants Once Roamed the Isle of Wight

Giant prehistoric elephants once roamed the Isle of Wight.  Palaeontologists know this thanks to eagle-eyed local resident Paul Hollingshead who spotted a large bone whilst exploring a beach on the western side of the island during an exceptionally low Spring tide.  Mr Hollingshead spotted a brown coloured object sticking out of the sand, he hoped he had found a dinosaur bone, but the fossil is actually part of a scapula (shoulder bone) from a prehistoric elephant identified as Palaeoloxodon antiquus.

A Fantastic Fossil Find

Mr Hollingshead and Family Show Off the Fossil 

Paul and his family show off their fossil find behind an Iguanodon exhibit.

The fossil has been dated to around 100,000 years ago.  During this time, our planet was warming up after the previous Ice Age.  Average annual temperatures were around three degrees Celsius higher in the northern hemisphere than they are today.  In this interglacial period (referred to as the Ipswichian in the UK, or the Sangamonian in the United States), elephants and other animals now associated with Africa roamed as far north as Great Britain.

Prehistoric Elephants

Palaeoloxodon antiquus was about the size of a modern African elephant, unlike the much better known Woolly Mammoth, the Palaeoloxodon elephants had straight-tusks.  The only people who might have seen this prehistoric elephant 100,000 years ago were probably Neanderthals.  Although our species, Homo sapiens had evolved by then, the fossil record suggests that the earliest modern people in Europe did not arrive until some 40,000 years later.

The Eofauna Scientific Research range includes several models of prehistoric elephants.  To view this  range of models and figures: Eofauna Scientific Research Models.

Progressive Oxidation Permitted Life on Earth to Flourish

A new study published in the academic journal “Nature Communications” carried out by a team of international scientists, including researchers from Leeds University, UCL (London) and the University of Washington, suggests that it took about one hundred million years for oxygen levels on our planet to rise to a high enough level to allow a rapid increase in the diversity of life on Earth.

Life on Earth

This study, which involved the use of a novel research technique – analysing selenium isotope concentrations from seven different locations, indicates that there was not a steady rise in oxygen levels over this immense period of time, O2 concentrations fluctuated.  The amount of oxygen increased in fits and starts, but the increase of overall available O2, did lead to a substantial increase in life around 600 million years ago.

The Gradual Rise in Oxygen Permitted a Myriad of Different Types of Animal to Evolve

Life in the Ediacaran.

Picture credit: John Sibbick

Explosion of Life

The researchers examined the period in Earth’s history from around 720 million years ago to prior to the Cambrian geological period.  During this time at least three extensive glaciations occurred.  As global temperatures fell, so the conditions for life that did exist at the time became extremely harsh.  It is likely that a number of different types of fauna became extinct.  However, when the temperature of the Earth rose, the ice sheets melted and released vast quantities of minerals and other nutrients into the oceans.

The scientists suggest that the ice melt and the subsequent increased nutrient mix in the sea helped cause oxygen levels to rise in the deep ocean.

CollectA have produced a range of replicas of ancient invertebrates including cephalopods and arthropods: CollectA Prehistoric Life Models.

This rise in O2 levels had huge implications for life on Earth.  The scene was set for the Cambrian explosion.

Scientists Describe New Species of Marine Reptile – A New Mosasaur from Japan

Scientists from the Royal Tyrrell Museum, the University of Alberta (Canada), the University of Cincinnati (USA), Hobetsu Museum, Fukuoka University (Japan) and the University of Cincinnati (USA) have published a scientific paper announcing the discovery of a new species of a type of marine reptile known as a mosasaur.  This new mosasaur has been named Phosphorosaurus ponpetelegans. The huge eye socket in the skull suggests that this animal, distantly related to  modern snakes and lizards, hunted in low light conditions.

Mosasaur from Japan

An Illustration of the Newly Described Mosasaur

The first Japanese Mosasaur to be identified.

Picture credit: Tatsuya Shinmura / Ashoro Museum of Palaeontology / Trustees of the Natural History Museum, (London).

There are a number of mosasaur models in stock at Everything Dinosaur, for example, PNSO stocks a mosasaur replica: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs Models.

A Three-metre-long Carnivore

Scientists have suggested that this three-metre-long carnivore may have specialised in hunting in deep water.  Perhaps it evolved to fill a specific ecological niche, that of a night time hunter preying on bioluminescent fish and squid.  Fossils of such fish along with cephalopods have been found in the same Upper Cretaceous strata on the island of Hokkaido (northern Japan), where the mosasaur fossils were found in 2009.

A Picture of the Prepared Fossil Skull of Phosphorosaurus Showing the Huge Eye Socket

The skull in lateral view showing the huge eye-socket.

Picture credit: Takuya Konishi et al.

Teaching Ideas/Extension Ideas

1. Note that the photograph above has a scale bar showing below the fossilised skull (line of black and white squares).  Why do palaeontologists put a scale bar on their photographs?
2. Approximately, how long is the skull of this marine reptile (note each black and white square in the scale bar equals one centimetre)?
3. How wide is the eye socket in centimetres?
4. Why would a carnivorous marine reptile need big eyes (link to the environment/habitat)?
5. What does it mean when scientists think an animal fitted a “specific ecological niche”?

Everything Dinosaur stocks a variety of mosasaur models and other replicas of marine reptiles: Marine Reptiles and Sea Monster Models.

Scientists Report on Car-sized Raptor

The Hell Creek Formation of North America has provided scientists with fossils of some of the most iconic dinosaurs known.   These ancient sediments were once home to dinosaurs such as Triceratops and Tyrannosaurus rex, however, amongst the many thousands of fossils excavated from these Upper Cretaceous rocks, there were a number of large teeth, unmistakably from a huge dromaeosaur (raptor), but no bones associated with them to provide a description.  All that has changed with the publication of a paper in the academic journal “Kansas University Paleontological Contributions”.

Dakotaraptor steini

Terror of the Late Cretaceous of North America

Dakotaraptor steini.

Picture credit:  Emily Willoughby

A team of scientists drawn from a number of top American institutions along with professional fossil collectors from the Black Hills Institute of South Dakota have described the partial and very fragmentary skeleton of a super-sized dromaeosaurid dinosaur that once co-existed with the likes of Triceratops and T. rex, sixty-six million years ago.  The fossils, including front limb bones and a huge, sickle-shaped toe claw were found in Harding County, South Dakota.

This dinosaur has been named Dakotaraptor steini. Although, less than ten percent of the skeleton has been excavated, comparisons made between these bones and the fossils of more complete raptors such as the famous Velociraptor, suggest that Dakotaraptor measured more than five and half metres in length.  This makes it one of the largest dromaeosaurids known and the second largest from North America.  Only Utahraptor, a meat-eating dinosaur that roamed Utah some fifty million years or so before Dakotaraptor evolved, was bigger.

Utahraptor – A Scale Drawing

A Utahraptor scale drawing.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The Hell Creek Ecosystem

The research team, led by Robert DePalma (Curator of Vertebrate Palaeontology at the Palm Beach Museum of Natural History (southern Florida), have speculated on where in the Hell Creek ecosystem, this agile predator may have fitted, after all, the apex predator was Tyrannosaurus rex.  It has been suggested that Dakotaraptor may have been a pack hunter and preyed on other types of herbivore and so it may not have been in direct competition with the tyrannosaurs.

Important Skeletal Features Preserved

Described as being about the size of the “raptors” that featured in the Summer blockbuster “Jurassic World”, Dakotaraptor preserves two very intriguing anatomical features on its bones.  Firstly, there is the enormous sickle-shaped claw on the second toe.  It measures sixteen centimetres in length, but when the sweeping curvature of the outer curve of the claw is considered, the claw measures an impressive twenty-four centimetres in length.  That’s roughly the same size of the toe claw found in the much larger Utahraptor.

In addition, the ulna (bone in the forearm), preserves fifteen large and distinct ulnar papillae (quill knobs).  These depressions in the bone are the places of attachment for big, pennaceous feathers.  Dakotaraptor is the largest known dinosaur which had wing feathers.

A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Fossil teeth had indicated that within the Hell Creek Formation strata, evidence for a substantial dromaeosaurid would be found.  This fascinating discovery adds another dimension in terms of niche partitioning to the fauna of this part of North America during the Late Cretaceous.”

The Beasts of the Mesozoic range contains a large number of articulated dromaeosaurid models.  To view the range: Beasts of the Mesozoic Models and Figures.

Puffins and Three Other British Birds at Risk of Extinction

There may still be several million of them, but the colourful North Atlantic Puffin (Fratercula arctica), that can be found on northern coasts of the British Isles, is in danger of extinction according to a new report from the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).  Puffins, Slavonian Grebes, Pochards and European Turtle Doves have all been added to the list of UK bird species included in the Red List of Threatened Species.

Loss of “British Wildlife”

Climate change is influencing the number and location of sand eels, the main food of Puffins and these attractive birds rely on a glut of sand eels to help them raise their young each spring.  Fewer sand eels has led to a reduction in Puffin numbers as fewer chicks are being raised.  A total of eight UK species of birds are now included on the Red List of Threatened Species of Birds.

The Curlew Sandpiper is on the endangered list.  This shorebird has been classified as “Near-Threatened”.  Loss of estuarine habitat has seen a dramatic fall in the numbers of these birds.

Puffins Face Extinction

Commenting on this revision of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species for Birds, a spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Extinction is not just something that happened in the past, many species once thought of being invulnerable are under threat and a number of scientists have stated that we are now experiencing a global mass extinction event.  It is not just exotic species like Rhinos and Snow Leopards that are threatened, extinctions are happening in the British Isles as well.”

The number of UK species listed as critical has now doubled to eight, a further fourteen species associated with the United Kingdom are considered “near threatened”.

The Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis)

The Atlantic Puffin is distantly related to the Great Auk (Pinguinus impennis), a large, flightless bird that once shared much of the Puffin’s habitat.  The birds were slowly and systematically hunted during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries.  They were hunted for their meat, their eggs were collected and the down of these black and white birds was highly prized for use in pillows.  By around 1800, this bird that had once ranged across the whole of the Northern Atlantic was virtually extinct.

The last accredited sighting of a Great Auk, occurred in 1852, when a single bird was spotted on the Grand Banks of Newfoundland.  This report, the last report of a Great Auk sighting, has been ratified by the IUCN.  Let’s hope that the Atlantic Puffin and the other birds now listed do not share the same fate.

For models of prehistoric animals and other extinct creatures: Mojo Fun Prehistoric and Extinct Animal Models.

For further information on the potential of a sixth mass extinction event, here is a link to an article published by Everything Dinosaur in 2014 that summarises a report into the potential accelerated  loss of species worldwide: Are We Heading for a Sixth Mass Extinction Event?

Evidence of Photosynthesis from 4.1 Billion Years Ago

Scientist from two universities based in the California (University of California, Los Angeles and Stanford University) have published a report that proposes that life on Earth may have evolved much earlier than previously thought.  The team conclude that life could have existed as far back as 4.1 billion years ago, a remarkable statement as it is believed Earth was formed just a few hundred million years before.  Our planet is approximately 4.54 billion years old.  To claim that life existed 4.1 billion years ago, puts the origins of life some 300 million years earlier than previously claimed.

Life on Earth Earlier Than Previously Claimed

Publishing in the on line edition of the journal entitled “Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences”, the team suggest that graphite identified within ancient zircon crystals found in Western Australia, is evidence of a biological process having taken place.  Analysis of the transition of uranium to lead isotopes preserved inside the zircon indicate that the zircon is at least 4.1 billion years old.

Therefore the graphite, which must have been older than 4.1 billion years to have become trapped inside, may suggest that biological processes that produced pure carbon were taking place on our planet that far back in deep time.

The Team Identified Dark Spots inside Ancient Zircons

The zircon is about the width of a human hair.

Picture credit: University of California (Los Angeles)

When Did Life on Earth Begin?

The zircons were formed as a result of volcanism.  The Jack Hills region of Western Australia preserves some of the oldest rocks known.  Analysis of dark spots found trapped inside the zircon suggests graphite (a form of pure carbon), one that is associated with the process of photosynthesis, a by-product of an ancient biological process.

The co-author of the study, Professor Mark Harrison (University of California, Los Angeles) stated:

“Twenty years ago, this would have been heretical, finding evidence of life 3.8 billion years ago was shocking.  Life on Earth may have started almost instantaneously, with the right ingredients life seems to form very quickly.”

This work has implications for understanding how life on our planet started.   This research is significant as it suggests that life in the universe may be much more abundant than previously thought.

To view the large range of prehistoric animal models available from Everything Dinosaur: Ancient Creatures/Prehistoric Animal Models.

Did Dinosaurs Sleep with One Eye Open?

A new study into the sleeping patterns and behaviours of crocodiles suggests that these reptiles are able to sleep with one eye open.  The ability to sleep in this way probably evolved to help the animal’s stay vigilant and alert to danger.  This phenomenon is termed unihemispheric sleeping.  Half the brain rests whilst the other half, connected to the open eye remains alert.  Mammals such as dolphins can do this along with some birds and reptiles.

Did Dinosaurs Sleep with One Eye Open?

If crocodiles and some birds are capable of unihemispheric sleep, could the dinosaurs have slept in this manner?  Birds and crocodiles are the closest living relatives of dinosaurs, perhaps dinosaurs could sleep with one eye open?

Did Dinosaurs Sleep with One Eye Open?

A close-up view of the glossy eye of the Rebor hatching Baryonyx figure.  Did dinosaurs sleep with one eye open?

Picture credit: Jurassic Collectibles

Studying Extant Reptiles

Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Ornithology (Germany) along with colleagues from La Trobe University (Australia) studied the sleep patterns and behaviours of Saltwater crocodiles.  These reptiles tended to sleep with both eyes closed but when another crocodile was introduced into their tank or a person approached, they kept one eye focused on the intruder.  Dinosaurs may have been vulnerable when they slept, as close relatives of the Dinosauria, demonstrate unihemispheric sleep, it is intriguing to consider whether dinosaurs slept with one eye open.

To view the large range of dinosaur themed toys and educational gifts available from Everything Dinosaur: Dinosaur Toys and Gifts.

Extension Ideas and Activities for Schools

• Question.  Why would some animals want to evolve the ability to keep alert whilst part of their body slept?

Answer.  When animal’s sleep they are vulnerable to attack, staying vigilant in this way can help to keep the animal’s safe.  In addition, some aquatic mammals are able to do this (dolphins etc.), they sleep with one eye open so that they can keep an eye on the rest of the pod.  It stops them becoming detached from their social group.

• Question.  In what other ways could sleeping animals keep themselves safe?

Answer.  They could hide, for example in burrows, they could climb trees to keep themselves safe (many birds roost in trees), they could live in a group such as a herd.   Whilst some herd members slept others could keep watch.

• Question, one aimed at more capable of learners tied in with KS3 studies.  If unihemispheric sleep is found in some mammals, birds and reptiles all vertebrates that are not that closely related to each other how did this come about?

Convergent Evolution

Answer.  This ability may have evolved in unrelated groups of animals independently, a case of convergent evolution, whereby similar characteristics evolve in unrelated animals as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or conditions.  Alternatively, this ability could have evolved long ago, in the shared, common ancestor of modern birds, mammals and crocodiles.

Ask the pupils to think about other examples of convergent evolution, for example bird wings and those of bats – similar characteristics but ones that have evolved independently in unrelated animals.

Everything Dinosaur team members work hard helping customers with their questions and queries, to view our testimonials: Everything Dinosaur Testimonials.

Eggshell Study suggests Dinosaurs Not Warm-blooded

Research published in the journal “Nature Communications” may have helped settle a 150-year-old debate amongst palaeontologists.  Analysis of the behaviour of two isotopes found in calcium carbonate, the main ingredient in eggshell suggests that dinosaurs were not warm-blooded (endotherms), neither were they cold-blooded (ectotherms) but they were somewhere in between.   The scientists conclude that dinosaurs were probably mesothermic, able to raise their internal body temperature above that of their immediate surroundings, but not all dinosaurs were able to maintain a body temperature at the level of today’s birds and mammals.

Dinosaur Eggshell Study

A dinosaur egg (believed to be from a theropod dinosaur).

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

A total of nineteen eggs from two different types of dinosaur were studied.  Eggshells from Argentina representing a Late Cretaceous, herbivorous titanosaur along with fossilised eggs from a theropod dinosaur (oviraptorid) from Mongolia were included in this ground-breaking research.  If scientists can determine the body temperature of extinct animals this will help them calculate metabolic rates and provide valuable data on how active these animals were.

Cold-blooded reptiles (ectotherms), like crocodiles are only capable of bursts of activity and rely on external sources of heat (the sun) to help them maintain a constant body temperature.  More active animals, (endotherms) like mammals and birds can generate internal heat and are generally a lot more active than their reptile counterparts.

An Example of a Typical Titanosaur

Perhaps up to 30 metres in length?

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows a sauropod model in the CollectA Age of Dinosaurs model range.

To view this range: CollectA Prehistoric Life Figures.

Dinosaur Eggshells

Commenting on the significance of this pioneering research, study co-author Aradhna Tripati (Assistant Professor of the University of California, Los Angeles) stated:

“This technique tells you about the internal body temperature of the female dinosaur when she was ovulating.  This presents the first direct measurements of dinosaur body temperatures.”

The research team conclude that clumping studies of two rare isotopes found in the eggshells show that oviraptorids (closely related to birds), were able to raise their body temperatures above that of their environment but not as high as warm-blooded animals (endotherms).  The much larger titanosaur had a body temperature slightly higher than our own.

This suggests that variable thermoregulation likely existed in the non-avian dinosaurs but not all dinosaurs had the body temperatures typical of modern birds and mammals which generally tend to be very active.

To read further articles on the dinosaur warm-blooded versus cold-blooded debate:

Clumped isotope analysis could determine endothermy: Isotope Analysis Could Help Shed Light on the Metabolism of the Dinosauria.

Warm-blooded or cold-blooded dinosaurs: Evidence to Support the warm-blooded or cold-blooded Debate in the Dinosauria.

Dinosaurs were endothermic: Endothermic Dinosaurs? The Debate Hots Up.

Ancient Horse Foetus Identified from Fossil Remains

Scientists from the Senckenberg Research Institute (Frankfurt, southern Germany), working in conjunction with colleagues from the University of Veterinary Medicine (Vienna, Austria) have identified the fossilised remains of a prehistoric horse foetus.  The 48-million-year-old fossil was excavated from the famous oil shales of Messel (near Frankfurt).

Fossil Discovery

The fossil was discovered fifteen years ago and set in resin to preserve it.  Using a combination of scanning electron microscopy and high powered X-rays, the scientists were able to identify the remains of an unborn foal within the adult animal.

The Fossil of the Ancient Horse (White Ellipse Marks the Site of the Foetus Fossil)

Scale bar 10 cm (A and B).  A line drawing and photograph of the Eurohippus foetus.

Picture credit: Senckenberg Research Institute

Eurohippus Foetus

This is the oldest equine foetus known.  The academic paper detailing this research has just been published in the scientific journal PLOS One.  It is widely believed that horses evolved from small, five-toed forest animals such as Propalaeotherium, fossils of which have been found in the Messel shales.  It seems that these ancient early horses thrived in the tropical forests of Europe that covered much of the Northern Hemisphere during the Eocene Epoch.

In this instance, the horse has been identified as an example of a genus called Eurohippus (Eurohippus. messelensis).  This is a remarkable fossil discovery.  An ancient mare preserved with her unborn foal.

For models and replicas of prehistoric animals including ancient horses: Wild Safari Prehistoric World Models.