All about dinosaurs, fossils and prehistoric animals by Everything Dinosaur team members.

Articles that focus on teaching ideas and activities aimed at Key Stage 3 and Key Stage 4.

30 04, 2020

“Crazy Beast” Lived Amongst the Last of the Dinosaurs

By |2024-02-18T13:33:24+00:00April 30th, 2020|General Teaching, Key Stage 1/2, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on “Crazy Beast” Lived Amongst the Last of the Dinosaurs

Adalatherium hui – “Crazy Beast” from Madagascar

Scientists have published a scientific paper in the academic journal “Nature” that describes a cat-sized mammal that lived alongside the dinosaurs at the very end of the Cretaceous.  The furry little creature has been named Adalatherium hui and its fossils have been found on the island of Madagascar.

Madagascar started to  break away from the super-continent of Gondwana around 88 million years ago and so animals such as Adalatherium evolved in relative isolation, separated from other populations of mammals on larger landmasses.  At around three kilograms in weight and not being fully grown when it died, it challenges the perception that all mammals were very small during the time of the dinosaurs.

A Life Reconstruction of the Late Cretaceous Mammaliaform Adalatherium hui

Adalatherium life reconstruction.
A life reconstruction of Adalatherium hui.

Picture credit: Reuters

“Crazy Beast”

Adalatherium lived around 72 million to 66 million years ago (Late Cretaceous).  The genus name translated from the Greek and native Malagasy means “crazy beast”, as the discovery of skull and postcranial fossil material of this badger-like creature challenges a lot of scientific assumptions about the evolution of mammals during the latter stages of the Mesozoic.

The snout had a large congregation of nerves within it, making the nose of this animal extremely sensitive.  This suggests that sense of smell was very important and therefore, it has been proposed that Adalatherium lived underground, that it was a burrowing animal (fossorial – an animal adapted to digging and living in burrows).

Adalatherium shared its island home with a number of predatory dinosaurs, including abelisaurids, dromaeosaurs and noasaurids as well as at least three species of crocodilians, both ancient forms and distant relatives of today’s living crocodiles (Neosuchian crocodilians).

Perhaps living underground was a very sensible strategy when surrounded by large predators.

Teaching Extensions Associated with Adalatherium

  • Make a list of animals alive today that live in burrows
  • What similarities do they have?  What differences can you spot?
  • Can you design a dinosaur that could live underground?  What sort of adaptations would this animal have?

For further information about educational resources: Email Everything Dinosaur.

6 04, 2020

New Research Suggests Not All Dinosaurs were Feathered

By |2024-02-16T16:57:14+00:00April 6th, 2020|General Teaching, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on New Research Suggests Not All Dinosaurs were Feathered

There were Feathered Dinosaurs but not all Dinosaurs were Feathered

Research conducted by palaeontologists at the London Natural History Museum suggests that whilst dinosaurs that were closely related to modern birds (Aves), were probably feathered, other types of dinosaurs such as the Late Cretaceous horned dinosaurs and the duck-billed dinosaurs probably were not covered in feathers.

A book tracing the evolution of feathers is being written and as part of the background to this forthcoming publication, Professor Paul Barrett of the Museum conducted an evolutionary analysis looking at the preserved skin fossils of the 77 dinosaur species where evidence of skin has been preserved.

A Preserved Skin Impression from a Tyrannosaurus rex

Tyrannosaurus rex skin impression.
Preserved integument from the neck (b) of T. rex specimen HMNS 2006.1743.01

Picture credit: Biology Letters

Evidence of Reptilian Scaly Skins

The study suggests that the first types of dinosaurs were probably covered in scaly skin and not feathered.  Professor Barrett and his colleagues found no evidence of the earliest members of the Dinosauria being feathered.  Most of the fossil evidence supports the view that a specific proportion of the Theropoda (mostly meat-eating dinosaurs), the Coelurosauria – were feathered.  No evidence for a feathery covering in long-necked, plant-eaters (Sauropodomorpha) has been identified to date.

Sinosauropteryx – The First Dinosaur with Feathers to be Described

Sinosauropteryx fossil material.
Sinosauropteryx on display – the first feathered dinosaur described. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The First Feathered Dinosaur Fossils were Found in China

PNSO Sinosauropteryx dinosaur model.
PNSO Yuyan the Sinosauropteryx dinosaur model.

The picture (above) shows a life reconstruction of Sinosauropteryx. It is a model from the PNSO range of prehistoric animals.

To view this range: PNSO Age of Dinosaurs.

The book is due to be published later on this year, a spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented that it would add to the growing list of books aimed at the general reader that helped to explain some of the areas of research currently being conducted on the Dinosauria.

For further articles about feathered dinosaurs and research:

Tyrannosaurus rex loses its feathers: T. rex Sheds its Feathers.

The origins of feathers: Feathers came first, then Birds Evolved.

Did all Dinosaurs have feathers? Did all Dinosaurs have Feathers?

Extension Ideas

  • What evidence can you find for dinosaurs having feathers?  Can you draw up a simplified family tree of the Dinosauria identifying which types of dinosaurs were feathered?
  • What are the reasons for large animals such as the sauropods probably not having a feathery covering?  A hint, think surface to volume ratios and how large animals need to prevent overheating.
  • Create a poster/chart comparing a bird to a meat-eating dinosaur.  What are the similarities, what are the differences?
  • Why do you think some dinosaurs were feathered?  Can you come up with a theory?

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

28 03, 2020

Rare Fossil Skull Reveals Origin of Modern Birds

By |2024-01-20T12:57:18+00:00March 28th, 2020|General Teaching, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on Rare Fossil Skull Reveals Origin of Modern Birds

“Wonderchicken” Fossil Reveals Origin of Modern Birds

The oldest fossil of a modern bird yet found, dating from the very end of the Cretaceous, has been identified by an international team of palaeontologists led by researchers from the University of Cambridge.  Sophisticated CT scans (computerised tomography), of a limestone rock, not much bigger than a pack of cards, revealed the exquisitely preserved fossil skull.  Fragments of bone exposed on the rock’s surface suggested that there were more bones buried deep in the rock, but the scientists were not expecting to find the near perfect fossilised skull of a modern bird (neornithine), once the CT scans had been completed.

Fossil Skull Study

The bird has been nicknamed “wonderchicken” as its skull shows characteristics found in modern ducks and chickens.  This suggests it is close to the last common ancestor of these types of birds.

An Early Bird in the Hand – Confuciusornis Model

PNSO Confuciusornis model. Cretaceous birds.
“A bird in the hand”, the Confuciusornis model from PNSO. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The picture (above) shows a PNSO early bird model (Confuciusornis).

To view this range: PNSO Prehistoric Animal Models.

The fossil comes from a limestone quarry on the Netherlands-Belgium border, making it the first modern bird from the age of dinosaurs to have been found in the Northern Hemisphere.

Named Asteriornis maastrichtensis, this quail-sized bird (to which it is distantly related), exhibits a previously undocumented combination of galliform-like (landfowl) and anseriform-like (waterfowl) anatomical traits.  Its presence alongside a previously reported Ichthyornis-like bird from the same quarry provides direct evidence of the co-occurrence of crown birds and avialan stem birds.

Small Size Could Have Saved Modern Birds from Extinction

Asteriornis was quite small, certainly much smaller than the pterosaurs that it shared the skies with.  The fossil has been dated to 66.8-66.7 million years ago, a few hundred thousand years before the dinosaurs and lots of other animals including many types of bird, died out.

The authors of the scientific paper (published in the journal Nature), speculate that as it was small and it lived by the sea, this way of life, fitting a particular niche in the Late Cretaceous ecosystem, may have helped the ancestors of today’s birds to survive the end-Cretaceous mass extinction event that wiped out the dinosaurs.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

12 03, 2020

Remarkable Tiny Dinosaur Discovery Coincides with British Science Week

By |2024-01-19T06:42:48+00:00March 12th, 2020|General Teaching, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on Remarkable Tiny Dinosaur Discovery Coincides with British Science Week

Remarkable Tiny Dinosaur Discovery Coincides with British Science Week

Everything Dinosaur marks British Science Week 2020 by reporting on the remarkable discovery of a tiny fossilised skull preserved in amber from northern Myanmar (Burma).  The fossil skull, which measures just 14 millimetres long represents a new species within the clade Dinosauria.  It has been named Oculudentavis khaungraae it probably weighed about as much as the smallest living bird, the Bee Hummingbird.  Scientists have estimated that it was around 8-10 centimetres long.  This makes Oculudentavis the smallest dinosaur known to science.

The Tiny Skull of the Newly Described Oculudentavis khaungraae Preserved in Amber from Myanmar

Oculudentavis khaungraae computer generated image of the skull.
Oculudentavis khaungraae computer generated image of the skull (left lateral view).

Picture credit: Lida Xing et al

Oculudentavis khaungraae

Team members at Everything Dinosaur have compared Oculudentavis to Tyrannosaurus rex (a distant relative of this tiny creature).  They estimate that an adult Tyrannosaurus rex weighed around 3.5 million times heavier.  Ironically, the tiny teeth in the jaw of Oculudentavis suggest that just like T. rex it was a predator.  It probably hunted insects.  The fossil is estimated to be around 99 million years old.

The fossil discovery represents the smallest member of the Mesozoic Dinosauria clade known to science and it demonstrates the importance of amber as a means of permitting scientists to gain an insight into the ecology of an ancient habitat thanks to the preservation of small animals and other material in fossilised tree resin.

Specimens preserved in amber are emerging as an exceptional way to study very small animals that once lived alongside the generally much larger pterosaurs and dinosaurs.

What an amazing fossil discovery, the publication of the scientific paper having coincided with British Science Week.

Note

The conclusions of the scientific paper have been challenged, this fossil might represent the preserved remains of a lizard.

The Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

2 09, 2019

Making Exciting Plans and Preparations for KS3

By |2023-12-29T16:20:26+00:00September 2nd, 2019|Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on Making Exciting Plans and Preparations for KS3

Making Preparations for Key Stage 3

It has been a busy end to August for our teaching team as they finalise plans for school and college visits over the autumn term (2019).  All has been put in place and prepared as the schools start back.  We have dealt with the last minute enquiries and provided what support and assistance that we can.  Everything Dinosaur team members are involved in a variety of teaching projects including some work with Key Stage 3 and Key Stage 4 students.  Our aim is to support the science element of the curriculum, especially those areas related to biology, chemistry and genetics.

In addition, we have been contacted with requests for careers advice.

The Practical Implications of Scientific Working

Digging for Dinosaurs. Palaeontologists take steps to preserve dig sites.
Pause for a pic next to a digs station The importance of working scientifically. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

Preparing Lesson Plans with an Emphasis on Scientific Working

When preparing lesson plans for older students (KS3 and KS4), we keep a list on the desk which reminds of the purpose of science for these age groups.  This helps us to focus on meeting the learning needs of the class.

For example, here is the list we use when considering a KS3 class (Year 7 to Year 9).

  • Use scientific ideas, theories and models to help explain current/past events (link to evolution and to climate change).
  • Build on existing scientific knowledge from Key Stage 2 and to make connections between the different scientific disciplines.
  • Understand a range of familiar, everyday applications of science.
  • Consider the advantages and disadvantages of scientific developments in the context of their impact on the environment, humanity and the planet
  • Explore different views on topic areas and consider the reasons for these differences.
  • Emphasis the role of building empirical and experimental evidence to support findings and scientific ideas.
  • Design and conduct investigations of different types, making use of available resources and reference sources.
  • To critique and evaluate the experiments undertaken and to consider how the research could be improved/developed.
  • To consider the role of scientific communication in disseminating research findings – how does science reach a wider audience?

These lists that we have developed act as an “aide mémoire” to ensure that we remain focused on the learning needs of each class.

Contact Everything Dinosaur to learn more about our outreach work: Email Everything Dinosaur.

30 04, 2019

A Late Cretaceous Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Diorama

By |2023-12-05T10:38:16+00:00April 30th, 2019|General Teaching, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on A Late Cretaceous Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Diorama

Late Cretaceous Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Diorama

Our thanks to Robert who sent in to us a photograph of the dinosaur and prehistoric animal landscape that he had created.  He has built a huge prehistoric landscape, complete with authentic Mesozoic vegetation, dinosaur footprints, flying reptiles and a watering hole.  The talented model maker then created his very own Late Cretaceous prehistoric scene using his large collection of dinosaur and prehistoric animal models.

A Late Cretaceous Dinosaur and Prehistoric Animal Diorama

A Late Cretaceous diorama.
An ancient Late Cretaceous landscape. A Late Cretaceous diorama.

Picture credit: Robert

We think you will agree the results are very impressive.

A Creative and Imaginative Prehistoric Scene

A lot of care and thought has gone into making this creative and imaginative scene.  Robert has been careful to research the prehistoric animals that his model collection represents and he has only featured models of prehistoric animals that would have lived in North America during the Late Cretaceous.  The diorama features such famous dinosaurs as Tyrannosaurus rex, Triceratops, Styracosaurus and the armoured giant Ankylosaurus.

The prehistoric scene also features a large pterosaur replica.  The pterosaur (Pteranodon sternbergi), has swooped down to the watering hole to take a drink, but it had better watch out as a large predator (Albertosaurus), is stalking it.  On the ground, this flying reptile would have been vulnerable to attack from tyrannosaurids, let’s hope that it spots the danger in time and is able to take flight.

The Pteranodon is Being Stalked by an Albertosaurus

Pteranodon stalked by Albertosaurus.
A resting pterosaur is stalked by Albertosaurus.

Picture credit: Robert

A Late Cretaceous Diorama

Our congratulations once again to Robert, for creating such a wonderful prehistoric animal diorama and that is a wonderful collection of dinosaur and prehistoric animal figures that you have got there.

For dinosaur and prehistoric animal models: Prehistoric Animal Models and Figures.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

17 04, 2019

Symbiosis in the Dinosauria

By |2023-12-05T08:22:54+00:00April 17th, 2019|General Teaching, Key Stage 1/2, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on Symbiosis in the Dinosauria

Symbiosis in the Dinosauria

Some animals alive today relay on the assistance of other animals to help them keep clean and tidy.  Tropical fish on coral reefs deliberately visit areas where “cleaner fish” congregate and they patiently wait whilst these fish clean them and remove dead skin and parasites.  In Africa, the Oxpecker (Buphagus spp.), a type of starling, regularly hitch a ride on the back of a large mammals, such as elephants and pick dead skin and parasites from their host’s hide.  These birds also catch insects disturbed as the large animals move through the scrub and bush.

Symbiosis in the Dinosauria

It is very likely that these sorts of mutually beneficial relationships between different species occurred in the past and with dinosaurs.

The Megalosaurus dinosaur at Crystal Palace Park.
The Megalosaurus statue at Crystal Palace a dinosaur from 1854. Since the nascent days of palaeontology, scientists have speculated about symbiosis within the Dinosauria. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

Symbiosis – Classroom Extension Ideas

Mutually beneficial activities are termed symbiotic relationships by scientists.  In the picture (above), a statue of a large theropod dinosaur (Megalosaurus) is shown. Since the early days of studying dinosaur bones, symbiosis within the Dinosauria was suspected. Symbiosis is the term used to describe an interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association to the benefit of both.

  • Can your class find examples of mutual co-operation (symbiosis) in the natural world?
  • Can the class consider ways that pupils and staff at the school co-operate together?

For further information contact Everything Dinosaur: Email Everything Dinosaur.

14 01, 2018

Giant Burrowing Bat from the Miocene

By |2023-08-28T17:42:12+01:00January 14th, 2018|General Teaching, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on Giant Burrowing Bat from the Miocene

Giant Burrowing Bat from New Zealand

A team of scientists from the University of South Wales, in collaboration with colleagues from Queensland University, Duke University, Canterbury Museum, and co-workers from the Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa and the American Museum of Natural History, have identified a new species of giant, burrowing, Miocene bat.  Fossil bones and teeth of the extinct species, which was about three times the size of most extant non-fruit eating bats, were excavated from Miocene-aged deposits near to the town of St Bathans in central Otago (New Zealand, South Island).

An Artist’s Illustration of the New Species of Giant Burrowing Bat (Vulcanops jennyworthyae)

Vulcanops life reconstruction.
Vulcanops illustration.

Picture credit: Gavin Mouldey

Writing in the academic journal “Scientific Reports”, the scientists describe the new species, named Vulcanops jennyworthyae, as a cursorial species, as although they could fly, they were very confident on the forest floor, scurrying through the leaf litter searching for insects and other invertebrates.  Today, burrowing bats are only found now in New Zealand, but they once also lived in Australia.   It is thought that a lack of terrestrial predators in more isolated parts of the antipodes allowed bats to exploit a ground-dwelling niche without having to resort to the high energy requirements of constant flight.

A Giant Bat?

Described as a giant, might make readers think of some nightmarish beast, but with an estimated weight of just forty grammes, although larger than insectivorous bats around today, Vulcanops jennyworthyae weighed less than a golf ball.  It would have posed no danger to larger animals or people had they been around some 19 to 16 million years ago when Vulcanops roamed.  It is the first new bat species to be added to the list of New Zealand’s Chiroptera (bats) for more than 150 years.

The Miocene species has been named Vulcanops jennyworthyae, after team member Jenny Worthy who found the bat fossils and in recognition of her role in helping to reveal the unique St Bathans Miocene fauna, and after Vulcan, the mythological Roman god of volcanoes and fire.

It is likely that climate change leading to a period of general cooling and drying drove the overall loss in bat diversity in New Zealand, just two bat species today comprise the entire native land mammal fauna.  All other modern land mammals in New Zealand have been introduced by people within the last 800 years.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur: Everything Dinosaur.

22 08, 2017

New Steppe Mammoth Steps into View

By |2023-08-11T09:52:20+01:00August 22nd, 2017|General Teaching, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on New Steppe Mammoth Steps into View

Everything Dinosaur to Stock Eofauna Scientific Research Steppe Mammoth Model

Everything Dinosaur will be selling the Eofauna Scientific Research Steppe Mammoth replica.  It is a museum quality replica of a prehistoric elephant that was an ancestor of the Woolly Mammoth.  Everything Dinosaur has been granted exclusive access to this new figure for on-line sales for a British Isles-based company.  Schools teaching about the Stone Age, evolution and natural selection can use this model to help support their teaching programmes.

The Eofauna Scientific Research Steppe Mammoth (Mammuthus trogontherii) Model

The Eofauna Scientific research 1:40 scale Steppe Mammoth model.

The Eofauna Scientific research Steppe Mammoth model.

Picture credit: Eofauna Scientific Research

To view the Eofauna Scientific Research model range: The Eofauna Scientific Research Model Range.

Eofauna Scientific Research Steppe Mammoth Replica

Formed in 2012 and based in Spain, Eofauna Scientific Research is a team formed by researchers and scientists with an in-depth knowledge of prehistoric animals and life in the past.  As specialists in vertebrate palaeontology, they share Everything Dinosaur’s aims of helping to educate and inform young people about the Earth sciences to encourage students to consider a scientific career.  This new, beautifully detailed model will help teachers, educationalists, academics and museum education teams explain about the evolution of the mammoths and the impact of climate change on species, after all, the Steppe Mammoth (Mammuthus trogontherii), had to adapt to a changing world with the onset of climate change and its descendants, the Woolly Mammoth (Mammuthus primigenius), were iconic animals of the Ice Age.

A 1:40 Scale Model of a Prehistoric Elephant – Mammuthus trogontherii

The size of the Eofauna Steppe Mammoth model.

The beautiful Eofauna Scientific Research Steppe Mammoth model. Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Commenting About the Steppe Mammoth Replica

A spokesperson from Everything Dinosaur commented:

“This is a great edition to any teaching or educational pack as this amazing detailed model will help educationalists to convey the evolutionary changes that took place as large terrestrial animals adapted to climate change.  The Steppe Mammoth model can be used in comparative anatomy studies permitting students to see the differences between this genus, Woolly Mammoths and modern elephants.  In addition, this replica and our fact sheet on this prehistoric animal can be used to help reinforce learning about natural selection, the impact of climate change and evolution.”

In Stock at Everything Dinosaur

This gorgeous Steppe Mammoth replica is due to be in stock at Everything Dinosaur next month (September 2017), just in time for the start of the academic year.

For further information about Everything Dinosaur’s teaching resources, free downloads, lesson plans and for information on the company’s work in schools and museums: Contact Everything Dinosaur Team Members.

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

20 07, 2017

Impressive Dinosaur Model Painting

By |2023-08-08T07:04:02+01:00July 20th, 2017|General Teaching, Key Stage 1/2, Key Stage 3/4|Comments Off on Impressive Dinosaur Model Painting

Schleich Pentaceratops Model Makeover

At Everything Dinosaur, our team members and teaching staff are always amazed by just how creative and clever dinosaur fans are.  Take for example Peter Thomas, a collector of prehistoric animal models who kindly sent to us some pictures of his version of the Schleich Pentaceratops dinosaur figure.  What an amazing colour scheme and such a skilfully painted model too.

Schleich Pentaceratops Model

Schleich Pentaceratops.

Schleich Pentaceratops available from Everything Dinosaur.  Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

The Colour of Dinosaurs

Despite considerable advances in recent years, palaeontologists cannot be certain about the colours of horned dinosaurs.  However, most scientists believe that these bird-hipped reptiles had excellent colour vision and that their spectacular frills and crests played a role in visual display as well as in intraspecific combat and as defensive weapons against carnivorous dinosaurs.  Peter has opted to give his Pentaceratops a very colourful crest and skull, the flashes of yellow combined with the red tones would have made a most impressive display surrounded by the greens and browns of the forest.

Combining Dinosaurs with Art

Dinosaur models, such as those made by Schleich with their roughened textures and carefully crafted features, provide tremendous scope when it comes to considering a repaint.  By repainting, you can be guaranteed to have created a unique piece of art and after all, not even the world’s most respected palaeontologist can criticise your choice of colours, as no one has ever seen a living non-avian dinosaur.  Horned dinosaur replicas make an excellent model choice for the hobbyist.  These types of dinosaurs, known as ceratopsians, are famous for their ornate head shields and myriad of bumps, horns, and lumps on the heads and faces.  When painted the model can be photographed in a suitable setting or added to a custom-made prehistoric landscape diorama.

The Schleich Pentaceratops Compared to the Schleich Triceratops

Schleich Pentaceatops compared to a Schleich Triceratops

One of the enlarged jugal bones with a horny sheath on it can be clearly seen on the Pentaceratops model (cheek area, under the eye).  Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur.

Picture credit: Everything Dinosaur

Visit the Everything Dinosaur website: Everything Dinosaur.

Education Extensions

As an extension to a science module involving learning about evolution, fossils and extinction, teachers could challenge students to repaint a dinosaur model.  This brings an element of art and design work into the science curriculum, helping to support the idea of cross curricular touch points in the teaching syllabus.   Students could be tasked to consider the following areas:

  • What colour scheme might work best to help camouflage the animal?
  • How the habitat/environment might influence the evolution of different coloured animals
  • The evidence for the colouration of extinct animals
  • Can students use examples of living (extant) animals to justify their chosen colour scheme?

A spokesperson from the teaching team at Everything Dinosaur commented:

“Peter’s Pentaceratops is an excellent example of a repainted dinosaur replica.  The photography has really helped to emphasis the hues and tones that have been carefully blended together to make a fantastic and truly unique dinosaur model.”

The Schleich model range is an excellent choice for this sort of activity, to view the range of Schleich prehistoric animals in stock at Everything Dinosaur: Schleich Dinosaurs and Prehistoric Animals.

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